Immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Immune Cells and Mediators, Prognostic Factors, and Immune-Therapeutic Implications
The present is a comprehensive review of the immunopathology of Covid-19. The immune reaction to SARS-CoV-2 infection is characterized by differentiation and proliferation of a variety of immune cells with immune mediator production and release, and activation of other pathogen resistance mechanisms...
| Main Authors: | , , , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
MDPI AG
2020-07-01
|
| Series: | International Journal of Molecular Sciences |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/21/13/4782 |
| _version_ | 1797563125179875328 |
|---|---|
| author | Alessandro Allegra Mario Di Gioacchino Alessandro Tonacci Caterina Musolino Sebastiano Gangemi |
| author_facet | Alessandro Allegra Mario Di Gioacchino Alessandro Tonacci Caterina Musolino Sebastiano Gangemi |
| author_sort | Alessandro Allegra |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | The present is a comprehensive review of the immunopathology of Covid-19. The immune reaction to SARS-CoV-2 infection is characterized by differentiation and proliferation of a variety of immune cells with immune mediator production and release, and activation of other pathogen resistance mechanisms. We fully address the humoral and cellular immune changes induced by the virus, with particular emphasis on the role of the “cytokine storm” in the evolution of the disease. Moreover, we also propose some immune alterations (i.e., inflammatory parameters, cytokines, leukocytes and lymphocyte subpopulations) as prognostic markers of the disease. Furthermore, we discuss how immune modifying drugs, such as tocilizumab, chloroquine, glucocorticoids and immunoglobulins, and blood purification therapy, can constitute a fundamental moment in the therapy of the infection. Finally, we made a critical analysis of a number of substances, not yet utilized, but potentially useful in SARS-CoV-2 patients, such as IFN lambda, TNF blockers, ulinastatin, siponimod, tacrolimus, mesenchymal stem cells, inhibitors of mononuclear macrophage recruitment, IL-1 family antagonists, JAK-2 or STAT-3 inhibitors. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-10T18:38:11Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-081d98dfde844b06868352535e1961bb |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 1661-6596 1422-0067 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-10T18:38:11Z |
| publishDate | 2020-07-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | International Journal of Molecular Sciences |
| spelling | doaj.art-081d98dfde844b06868352535e1961bb2023-11-20T06:00:52ZengMDPI AGInternational Journal of Molecular Sciences1661-65961422-00672020-07-012113478210.3390/ijms21134782Immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Immune Cells and Mediators, Prognostic Factors, and Immune-Therapeutic ImplicationsAlessandro Allegra0Mario Di Gioacchino1Alessandro Tonacci2Caterina Musolino3Sebastiano Gangemi4Division of Hematology, Department of Human Pathology in Adulthood and Childhood “Gaetano Barresi”, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, ItalyDepartment of Medicine and Science of Ageing, G’ d’Annunzio University, 66100 Chieti, ItalyClinical Physiology Institute, National Research Council of Italy (IFC-CNR), 56124 Pisa, ItalyDivision of Hematology, Department of Human Pathology in Adulthood and Childhood “Gaetano Barresi”, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, ItalySchool and Operative Unit of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, ItalyThe present is a comprehensive review of the immunopathology of Covid-19. The immune reaction to SARS-CoV-2 infection is characterized by differentiation and proliferation of a variety of immune cells with immune mediator production and release, and activation of other pathogen resistance mechanisms. We fully address the humoral and cellular immune changes induced by the virus, with particular emphasis on the role of the “cytokine storm” in the evolution of the disease. Moreover, we also propose some immune alterations (i.e., inflammatory parameters, cytokines, leukocytes and lymphocyte subpopulations) as prognostic markers of the disease. Furthermore, we discuss how immune modifying drugs, such as tocilizumab, chloroquine, glucocorticoids and immunoglobulins, and blood purification therapy, can constitute a fundamental moment in the therapy of the infection. Finally, we made a critical analysis of a number of substances, not yet utilized, but potentially useful in SARS-CoV-2 patients, such as IFN lambda, TNF blockers, ulinastatin, siponimod, tacrolimus, mesenchymal stem cells, inhibitors of mononuclear macrophage recruitment, IL-1 family antagonists, JAK-2 or STAT-3 inhibitors.https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/21/13/4782SARS-CoV-2immune responsecytokine stormIL-6prognostic factorT lymphocyte |
| spellingShingle | Alessandro Allegra Mario Di Gioacchino Alessandro Tonacci Caterina Musolino Sebastiano Gangemi Immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Immune Cells and Mediators, Prognostic Factors, and Immune-Therapeutic Implications International Journal of Molecular Sciences SARS-CoV-2 immune response cytokine storm IL-6 prognostic factor T lymphocyte |
| title | Immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Immune Cells and Mediators, Prognostic Factors, and Immune-Therapeutic Implications |
| title_full | Immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Immune Cells and Mediators, Prognostic Factors, and Immune-Therapeutic Implications |
| title_fullStr | Immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Immune Cells and Mediators, Prognostic Factors, and Immune-Therapeutic Implications |
| title_full_unstemmed | Immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Immune Cells and Mediators, Prognostic Factors, and Immune-Therapeutic Implications |
| title_short | Immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Immune Cells and Mediators, Prognostic Factors, and Immune-Therapeutic Implications |
| title_sort | immunopathology of sars cov 2 infection immune cells and mediators prognostic factors and immune therapeutic implications |
| topic | SARS-CoV-2 immune response cytokine storm IL-6 prognostic factor T lymphocyte |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/21/13/4782 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT alessandroallegra immunopathologyofsarscov2infectionimmunecellsandmediatorsprognosticfactorsandimmunetherapeuticimplications AT mariodigioacchino immunopathologyofsarscov2infectionimmunecellsandmediatorsprognosticfactorsandimmunetherapeuticimplications AT alessandrotonacci immunopathologyofsarscov2infectionimmunecellsandmediatorsprognosticfactorsandimmunetherapeuticimplications AT caterinamusolino immunopathologyofsarscov2infectionimmunecellsandmediatorsprognosticfactorsandimmunetherapeuticimplications AT sebastianogangemi immunopathologyofsarscov2infectionimmunecellsandmediatorsprognosticfactorsandimmunetherapeuticimplications |