Biosynthesis Pathways, Transport Mechanisms and Biotechnological Applications of Fungal Siderophores
Iron (Fe) is the fourth most abundant element on earth and represents an essential nutrient for life. As a fundamental mineral element for cell growth and development, iron is available for uptake as ferric ions, which are usually oxidized into complex oxyhydroxide polymers, insoluble under aerobic...
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MDPI AG
2021-12-01
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| Series: | Journal of Fungi |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/8/1/21 |
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| author | Lorenzo Pecoraro Xiao Wang Dawood Shah Xiaoxuan Song Vishal Kumar Abdul Shakoor Keshawanand Tripathi Pramod W. Ramteke Rupa Rani |
| author_facet | Lorenzo Pecoraro Xiao Wang Dawood Shah Xiaoxuan Song Vishal Kumar Abdul Shakoor Keshawanand Tripathi Pramod W. Ramteke Rupa Rani |
| author_sort | Lorenzo Pecoraro |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Iron (Fe) is the fourth most abundant element on earth and represents an essential nutrient for life. As a fundamental mineral element for cell growth and development, iron is available for uptake as ferric ions, which are usually oxidized into complex oxyhydroxide polymers, insoluble under aerobic conditions. In these conditions, the bioavailability of iron is dramatically reduced. As a result, microorganisms face problems of iron acquisition, especially under low concentrations of this element. However, some microbes have evolved mechanisms for obtaining ferric irons from the extracellular medium or environment by forming small molecules often regarded as siderophores. Siderophores are high affinity iron-binding molecules produced by a repertoire of proteins found in the cytoplasm of cyanobacteria, bacteria, fungi, and plants. Common groups of siderophores include hydroxamates, catecholates, carboxylates, and hydroximates. The hydroxamate siderophores are commonly synthesized by fungi. L-ornithine is a biosynthetic precursor of siderophores, which is synthesized from multimodular large enzyme complexes through non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs), while siderophore-Fe chelators cell wall mannoproteins (FIT1, FIT2, and FIT3) help the retention of siderophores. <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, for example, can express these proteins in two genetically separate systems (reductive and nonreductive) in the plasma membrane. These proteins can convert Fe (III) into Fe (II) by a ferrous-specific metalloreductase enzyme complex and flavin reductases (FREs). However, regulation of the siderophore through Fur Box protein on the DNA promoter region and its activation or repression depend primarily on the Fe availability in the external medium. Siderophores are essential due to their wide range of applications in biotechnology, medicine, bioremediation of heavy metal polluted environments, biocontrol of plant pathogens, and plant growth enhancement. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-10T01:10:58Z |
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| id | doaj.art-1b81b5bf17704166ac091f54d3d3747c |
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| issn | 2309-608X |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-10T01:10:58Z |
| publishDate | 2021-12-01 |
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| series | Journal of Fungi |
| spelling | doaj.art-1b81b5bf17704166ac091f54d3d3747c2023-11-23T14:17:41ZengMDPI AGJournal of Fungi2309-608X2021-12-01812110.3390/jof8010021Biosynthesis Pathways, Transport Mechanisms and Biotechnological Applications of Fungal SiderophoresLorenzo Pecoraro0Xiao Wang1Dawood Shah2Xiaoxuan Song3Vishal Kumar4Abdul Shakoor5Keshawanand Tripathi6Pramod W. Ramteke7Rupa Rani8School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Tianjin 300072, ChinaSchool of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Tianjin 300072, ChinaSchool of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Tianjin 300072, ChinaSchool of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Tianjin 300072, ChinaDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Yeungnam University, Gyongsan 38541, KoreaSchool of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Tianjin 300072, ChinaCenter for Conservation and Utilization of Blue-Green Algae, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, IndiaFaculty of Life Sciences, Mandsaur University, Mandsaur 458001, IndiaSchool of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Tianjin 300072, ChinaIron (Fe) is the fourth most abundant element on earth and represents an essential nutrient for life. As a fundamental mineral element for cell growth and development, iron is available for uptake as ferric ions, which are usually oxidized into complex oxyhydroxide polymers, insoluble under aerobic conditions. In these conditions, the bioavailability of iron is dramatically reduced. As a result, microorganisms face problems of iron acquisition, especially under low concentrations of this element. However, some microbes have evolved mechanisms for obtaining ferric irons from the extracellular medium or environment by forming small molecules often regarded as siderophores. Siderophores are high affinity iron-binding molecules produced by a repertoire of proteins found in the cytoplasm of cyanobacteria, bacteria, fungi, and plants. Common groups of siderophores include hydroxamates, catecholates, carboxylates, and hydroximates. The hydroxamate siderophores are commonly synthesized by fungi. L-ornithine is a biosynthetic precursor of siderophores, which is synthesized from multimodular large enzyme complexes through non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs), while siderophore-Fe chelators cell wall mannoproteins (FIT1, FIT2, and FIT3) help the retention of siderophores. <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, for example, can express these proteins in two genetically separate systems (reductive and nonreductive) in the plasma membrane. These proteins can convert Fe (III) into Fe (II) by a ferrous-specific metalloreductase enzyme complex and flavin reductases (FREs). However, regulation of the siderophore through Fur Box protein on the DNA promoter region and its activation or repression depend primarily on the Fe availability in the external medium. Siderophores are essential due to their wide range of applications in biotechnology, medicine, bioremediation of heavy metal polluted environments, biocontrol of plant pathogens, and plant growth enhancement.https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/8/1/21fungal cytoplasm proteinsiron uptakeiron-binding moleculessiderophore biosynthesishydroxamatesiderophore-Fe chelators mannoproteins |
| spellingShingle | Lorenzo Pecoraro Xiao Wang Dawood Shah Xiaoxuan Song Vishal Kumar Abdul Shakoor Keshawanand Tripathi Pramod W. Ramteke Rupa Rani Biosynthesis Pathways, Transport Mechanisms and Biotechnological Applications of Fungal Siderophores Journal of Fungi fungal cytoplasm proteins iron uptake iron-binding molecules siderophore biosynthesis hydroxamate siderophore-Fe chelators mannoproteins |
| title | Biosynthesis Pathways, Transport Mechanisms and Biotechnological Applications of Fungal Siderophores |
| title_full | Biosynthesis Pathways, Transport Mechanisms and Biotechnological Applications of Fungal Siderophores |
| title_fullStr | Biosynthesis Pathways, Transport Mechanisms and Biotechnological Applications of Fungal Siderophores |
| title_full_unstemmed | Biosynthesis Pathways, Transport Mechanisms and Biotechnological Applications of Fungal Siderophores |
| title_short | Biosynthesis Pathways, Transport Mechanisms and Biotechnological Applications of Fungal Siderophores |
| title_sort | biosynthesis pathways transport mechanisms and biotechnological applications of fungal siderophores |
| topic | fungal cytoplasm proteins iron uptake iron-binding molecules siderophore biosynthesis hydroxamate siderophore-Fe chelators mannoproteins |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/8/1/21 |
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