| Summary: | The city – a modern jungle, where not cellulose and photosynthesis but concrete and combustion reign supreme. The question now being asked by urban planners, governments, and scientists is if it may stay like that and if it can stay like that or if it has to stay like that. Social, economic, cultural, historical, and legal factors are determinants in the ecology of urban ecosystems. Even well-managed cities are usually hostile toward non-human inhabitants. Furthermore, as with any complex system, the equilibrium is fragile, even if it exists. This publication outlines the co-evolution and ecology of humans and other species in the cities, their importance, and perspectives.
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