Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanisms of Walnut Green Husk Extract
Walnut green husks (WGHs), by-products of walnut production, are believed to possess antimicrobial properties, making them a potential alternative to antibiotics. In this study, the antibacterial activities of three extracts, derived from WGH, against <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, <i&...
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MDPI AG
2023-12-01
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| Series: | Molecules |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/24/7981 |
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| author | Lei Wang Wenjing Li Xuanyue Li Jiancheng Liu Yong Chen |
| author_facet | Lei Wang Wenjing Li Xuanyue Li Jiancheng Liu Yong Chen |
| author_sort | Lei Wang |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Walnut green husks (WGHs), by-products of walnut production, are believed to possess antimicrobial properties, making them a potential alternative to antibiotics. In this study, the antibacterial activities of three extracts, derived from WGH, against <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, <i>Bacillus subtilis</i>, and <i>Escherichia coli</i> were investigated, and the antibacterial mechanisms of an anhydrous ethanol extract of WGH (WGHa) were examined. The results showed that WGHa exhibited inhibitory effects on all tested bacteria. The ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the major active compounds present in WGHa were terpenoids, phenols, and flavonoids. Treatment with WGHa resulted in the leakage of intracellular ions and alkaline phosphatase; a reduction in intracellular ATP content, ATPase activity, and nucleic acid content; as well as cellular metabolic viability. The transmission electron microscopy images showed varying degrees of cell deformation and membrane damage following WGHa treatment. The transcriptome sequencing and differentially expressed gene enrichment analyses revealed an up-regulation in pathways associated with RNA degradation, translation, protein export, and oxidative phosphorylation. Conversely, pathways involved in cell movement and localization, as well as cell wall organization and carbohydrate transport, were found to be down-regulated. These findings suggest that WGHa alters cell membrane permeability and causes damage to the cell wall. Additionally, WGHa interferes with cellular energy metabolism, compromises RNA integrity, and induces DNA replication stress, consequently inhibiting the normal growth and proliferation of bacteria. These findings unveiled the antimicrobial mechanisms of WGHa, highlighting its potential application as an antibiotic alternative. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-08T20:29:43Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-2962e67c81724bcaa120e2903d3d3fe5 |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 1420-3049 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-08T20:29:43Z |
| publishDate | 2023-12-01 |
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| series | Molecules |
| spelling | doaj.art-2962e67c81724bcaa120e2903d3d3fe52023-12-22T14:27:16ZengMDPI AGMolecules1420-30492023-12-012824798110.3390/molecules28247981Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanisms of Walnut Green Husk ExtractLei Wang0Wenjing Li1Xuanyue Li2Jiancheng Liu3Yong Chen4Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Herbivore Nutrition for Meat & Milk, College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, ChinaXinjiang Key Laboratory of Herbivore Nutrition for Meat & Milk, College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, ChinaXinjiang Key Laboratory of Herbivore Nutrition for Meat & Milk, College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, ChinaXinjiang Key Laboratory of Herbivore Nutrition for Meat & Milk, College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, ChinaXinjiang Key Laboratory of Herbivore Nutrition for Meat & Milk, College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, ChinaWalnut green husks (WGHs), by-products of walnut production, are believed to possess antimicrobial properties, making them a potential alternative to antibiotics. In this study, the antibacterial activities of three extracts, derived from WGH, against <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, <i>Bacillus subtilis</i>, and <i>Escherichia coli</i> were investigated, and the antibacterial mechanisms of an anhydrous ethanol extract of WGH (WGHa) were examined. The results showed that WGHa exhibited inhibitory effects on all tested bacteria. The ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the major active compounds present in WGHa were terpenoids, phenols, and flavonoids. Treatment with WGHa resulted in the leakage of intracellular ions and alkaline phosphatase; a reduction in intracellular ATP content, ATPase activity, and nucleic acid content; as well as cellular metabolic viability. The transmission electron microscopy images showed varying degrees of cell deformation and membrane damage following WGHa treatment. The transcriptome sequencing and differentially expressed gene enrichment analyses revealed an up-regulation in pathways associated with RNA degradation, translation, protein export, and oxidative phosphorylation. Conversely, pathways involved in cell movement and localization, as well as cell wall organization and carbohydrate transport, were found to be down-regulated. These findings suggest that WGHa alters cell membrane permeability and causes damage to the cell wall. Additionally, WGHa interferes with cellular energy metabolism, compromises RNA integrity, and induces DNA replication stress, consequently inhibiting the normal growth and proliferation of bacteria. These findings unveiled the antimicrobial mechanisms of WGHa, highlighting its potential application as an antibiotic alternative.https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/24/7981walnut green husk extractantibacterial activitytranscriptome analysisRNA degradationexcessive DNA replicationenergy metabolism |
| spellingShingle | Lei Wang Wenjing Li Xuanyue Li Jiancheng Liu Yong Chen Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanisms of Walnut Green Husk Extract Molecules walnut green husk extract antibacterial activity transcriptome analysis RNA degradation excessive DNA replication energy metabolism |
| title | Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanisms of Walnut Green Husk Extract |
| title_full | Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanisms of Walnut Green Husk Extract |
| title_fullStr | Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanisms of Walnut Green Husk Extract |
| title_full_unstemmed | Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanisms of Walnut Green Husk Extract |
| title_short | Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanisms of Walnut Green Husk Extract |
| title_sort | antimicrobial activity and mechanisms of walnut green husk extract |
| topic | walnut green husk extract antibacterial activity transcriptome analysis RNA degradation excessive DNA replication energy metabolism |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/24/7981 |
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