| Summary: | Pumice rafts are considered to be a long-range drifting agent that promotes material exchange and the dispersal of marine species. Large ones can also interfere with vessel navigation and have a negative impact on the social economy and marine ecosystems. Synoptic observations from the Multispectral Instrument (MSI) on-board Sentinel-2, with a spatial resolution of up to 10 m, provide an excellent means to monitor and track pumice rafts. In this study, the use of a Spectral-Feature-Based Extraction (SFBE) algorithm to automatically discriminate and extract pumice on the ocean surface from submarine volcano eruptions was proposed. Specifically, a Pumice Raft Index (PRI) was developed based on the spectral signatures of pumice in MSI imagery to identify potential pumice features. After pre-processing, the PRI image was then subjected to a series of per-pixel and object-based processes to rule out false-positive detections, including shallow water, striped edges, mudflats, and cloud edges. The SFBE algorithm showed excellent performance in extracting pumice rafts and was successfully applied to extract pumice rafts near the Fiji Yasawa islands in 2019 and Hunga Tonga island in 2022, with an overall pumice extraction accuracy of 95.5% and a proportion of pixels mis-extracted as pumice of <3%. The robustness of the algorithm has also been tested and proved through applying it to data and comparing its output to results from previous studies. The timely and accurate detection of pumice using the algorithm proposed here is expected to provide important information to aid in response actions and ecological assessments, and will lead to a better understanding of the fate of pumice.
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