Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM<sub>2.5</sub>-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks
PM<sub>2.5</sub>-bound trace elements were chosen for health risk assessment because they have been linked to an increased risk of respiratory and cardiovascular illness. Since the Korean national air quality standard for ambient particulate matter is based on PM<sub>2.5</sub>...
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MDPI AG
2023-04-01
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| Series: | Atmosphere |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/14/4/753 |
| _version_ | 1797606411228676096 |
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| author | Jayant Nirmalkar Kwangyul Lee Junyoung Ahn Jiyi Lee Mijung Song |
| author_facet | Jayant Nirmalkar Kwangyul Lee Junyoung Ahn Jiyi Lee Mijung Song |
| author_sort | Jayant Nirmalkar |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | PM<sub>2.5</sub>-bound trace elements were chosen for health risk assessment because they have been linked to an increased risk of respiratory and cardiovascular illness. Since the Korean national air quality standard for ambient particulate matter is based on PM<sub>2.5</sub> mass concentration, there have only been a few measurements of PM<sub>2.5</sub> particles together with trace elements that can be utilized to evaluate their effects on air quality and human health. Thus, this study describes the trace elements bound to PM<sub>2.5</sub> in Seoul (urban area) and Seosan (rural area) using online nondestructive energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis from December 2020 to January 2021. At both the Seoul and Seosan sites, S, K, Si, Ca, and Fe constituted most of the PM<sub>2.5</sub>-bound trace elements (~95%); major components such as S, K, and soil (estimatedcalculatedcalculated based on oxides of Si, Fe, Ca, and Ti) were presumably from anthropogenic and crustal sources, as well as favorable meteorological conditions. During winter, synoptic meteorology favored the transport of particles from severely contaminated regions, such as the East Asian outflow and local emissions. The total dry deposition flux for crustal elements was 894.5 ± 320.8 µg m<sup>−2</sup> d<sup>−1</sup> in Seoul and 1088.8 ± 302.4 µg m<sup>−2</sup> d<sup>−1</sup> in Seosan. Moreover, potential health risks from the trace elements were estimated. Cancer risk values for carcinogenic trace elements (Cr, As, Ni, and Pb) were within the tolerable limit (1 × 10<sup>−6</sup>), suggesting that adults and children were not at risk of cancer throughout the study period in Seoul and Seosan. Furthermore, a potential risk assessment of human exposure to remaining carcinogens (Cr, As, Ni, and Pb) and non-carcinogens (Cu, Fe, Zn, V, Mn, and Se) indicated that these trace elements posed no health risks. Nevertheless, trace element monitoring, risk assessment, and mitigation must be strengthened throughout the study area to confirm that trace-element-related health effects remain harmless. Researchers and policymakers can use the database from this study on spatial and temporal variation to establish actions and plans in the future. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-11T05:14:48Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-41724235f1df4c2690d86c1a26c9f992 |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2073-4433 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-11T05:14:48Z |
| publishDate | 2023-04-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
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| series | Atmosphere |
| spelling | doaj.art-41724235f1df4c2690d86c1a26c9f9922023-11-17T18:18:21ZengMDPI AGAtmosphere2073-44332023-04-0114475310.3390/atmos14040753Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM<sub>2.5</sub>-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health RisksJayant Nirmalkar0Kwangyul Lee1Junyoung Ahn2Jiyi Lee3Mijung Song4Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of KoreaDivision of Climate and Air Quality Research, National Institute of Environmental Research, Chungcheong Region Air Quality Research Center, Seosan 32010, Republic of KoreaDivision of Climate and Air Quality Research, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon 22689, Republic of KoreaDepartment of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of KoreaDepartment of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of KoreaPM<sub>2.5</sub>-bound trace elements were chosen for health risk assessment because they have been linked to an increased risk of respiratory and cardiovascular illness. Since the Korean national air quality standard for ambient particulate matter is based on PM<sub>2.5</sub> mass concentration, there have only been a few measurements of PM<sub>2.5</sub> particles together with trace elements that can be utilized to evaluate their effects on air quality and human health. Thus, this study describes the trace elements bound to PM<sub>2.5</sub> in Seoul (urban area) and Seosan (rural area) using online nondestructive energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis from December 2020 to January 2021. At both the Seoul and Seosan sites, S, K, Si, Ca, and Fe constituted most of the PM<sub>2.5</sub>-bound trace elements (~95%); major components such as S, K, and soil (estimatedcalculatedcalculated based on oxides of Si, Fe, Ca, and Ti) were presumably from anthropogenic and crustal sources, as well as favorable meteorological conditions. During winter, synoptic meteorology favored the transport of particles from severely contaminated regions, such as the East Asian outflow and local emissions. The total dry deposition flux for crustal elements was 894.5 ± 320.8 µg m<sup>−2</sup> d<sup>−1</sup> in Seoul and 1088.8 ± 302.4 µg m<sup>−2</sup> d<sup>−1</sup> in Seosan. Moreover, potential health risks from the trace elements were estimated. Cancer risk values for carcinogenic trace elements (Cr, As, Ni, and Pb) were within the tolerable limit (1 × 10<sup>−6</sup>), suggesting that adults and children were not at risk of cancer throughout the study period in Seoul and Seosan. Furthermore, a potential risk assessment of human exposure to remaining carcinogens (Cr, As, Ni, and Pb) and non-carcinogens (Cu, Fe, Zn, V, Mn, and Se) indicated that these trace elements posed no health risks. Nevertheless, trace element monitoring, risk assessment, and mitigation must be strengthened throughout the study area to confirm that trace-element-related health effects remain harmless. Researchers and policymakers can use the database from this study on spatial and temporal variation to establish actions and plans in the future.https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/14/4/753PM<sub>2.5</sub>-bound trace elementsdry depositionhazard indexcancer risk assessmentorigins |
| spellingShingle | Jayant Nirmalkar Kwangyul Lee Junyoung Ahn Jiyi Lee Mijung Song Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM<sub>2.5</sub>-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks Atmosphere PM<sub>2.5</sub>-bound trace elements dry deposition hazard index cancer risk assessment origins |
| title | Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM<sub>2.5</sub>-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks |
| title_full | Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM<sub>2.5</sub>-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks |
| title_fullStr | Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM<sub>2.5</sub>-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks |
| title_full_unstemmed | Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM<sub>2.5</sub>-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks |
| title_short | Comparisons of Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM<sub>2.5</sub>-Bound Trace Elements in Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea, and Associated Potential Health Risks |
| title_sort | comparisons of spatial and temporal variations in pm sub 2 5 sub bound trace elements in urban and rural areas of south korea and associated potential health risks |
| topic | PM<sub>2.5</sub>-bound trace elements dry deposition hazard index cancer risk assessment origins |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/14/4/753 |
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