Willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts inhibit both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses: study on its anti-coronavirus and anti-enterovirus activities
IntroductionRecurring viral outbreaks have a significant negative impact on society. This creates a need to develop novel strategies to complement the existing antiviral approaches. There is a need for safe and sustainable antiviral solutions derived from nature.ObjectiveThis study aimed to investig...
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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Frontiers Media S.A.
2023-11-01
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| Series: | Frontiers in Microbiology |
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| Online Access: | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1249794/full |
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| author | Dhanik Reshamwala Sailee Shroff Jaana Liimatainen Jenni Tienaho Mira Laajala Petri Kilpeläinen Anneli Viherä-Aarnio Maarit Karonen Tuula Jyske Varpu Marjomäki |
| author_facet | Dhanik Reshamwala Sailee Shroff Jaana Liimatainen Jenni Tienaho Mira Laajala Petri Kilpeläinen Anneli Viherä-Aarnio Maarit Karonen Tuula Jyske Varpu Marjomäki |
| author_sort | Dhanik Reshamwala |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | IntroductionRecurring viral outbreaks have a significant negative impact on society. This creates a need to develop novel strategies to complement the existing antiviral approaches. There is a need for safe and sustainable antiviral solutions derived from nature.ObjectiveThis study aimed to investigate the antiviral potential of willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts against coronaviruses and enteroviruses. Willow bark has long been recognized for its medicinal properties and has been used in traditional medicines. However, its potential as a broad-spectrum antiviral agent remains relatively unexplored.MethodsCytopathic effect inhibition assay and virucidal and qPCR-based assays were used to evaluate the antiviral potential of the bark extracts. The mechanism of action was investigated using time-of-addition assay, confocal microscopy, TEM, thermal, and binding assays. Extracts were fractionated and screened for their chemical composition using high-resolution LC-MS.ResultsThe native Salix samples demonstrated their excellent antiviral potential against the non-enveloped enteroviruses even at room temperature and after 45 s. They were equally effective against the seasonal and pandemic coronaviruses. Confocal microscopy verified the loss of infection capacity by negligible staining of the newly synthesized capsid or spike proteins. Time-of-addition studies demonstrated that Salix bark extract had a direct effect on the virus particles but not through cellular targets. Negative stain TEM and thermal assay showed that antiviral action on enteroviruses was based on the added stability of the virions. In contrast, Salix bark extract caused visible changes in the coronavirus structure, which was demonstrated by the negative stain TEM. However, the binding to the cells was not affected, as verified by the qPCR study. Furthermore, coronavirus accumulated in the cellular endosomes and did not proceed after this stage, based on the confocal studies. None of the tested commercial reference samples, such as salicin, salicylic acid, picein, and triandrin, had any antiviral activity. Fractionation of the extract and subsequent MS analysis revealed that most of the separated fractions were very effective against enteroviruses and contained several different chemical groups such as hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, flavonoids, and procyanidins.ConclusionSalix spp. bark extracts contain several virucidal agents that are likely to act synergistically and directly on the viruses. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-11T11:45:28Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-42b9276f969c445bb2ab432a605b7755 |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 1664-302X |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-11T11:45:28Z |
| publishDate | 2023-11-01 |
| publisher | Frontiers Media S.A. |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Frontiers in Microbiology |
| spelling | doaj.art-42b9276f969c445bb2ab432a605b77552023-11-09T13:37:47ZengFrontiers Media S.A.Frontiers in Microbiology1664-302X2023-11-011410.3389/fmicb.2023.12497941249794Willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts inhibit both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses: study on its anti-coronavirus and anti-enterovirus activitiesDhanik Reshamwala0Sailee Shroff1Jaana Liimatainen2Jenni Tienaho3Mira Laajala4Petri Kilpeläinen5Anneli Viherä-Aarnio6Maarit Karonen7Tuula Jyske8Varpu Marjomäki9Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Nanoscience Center, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FinlandDepartment of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Nanoscience Center, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FinlandNatural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Helsinki, FinlandNatural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Helsinki, FinlandDepartment of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Nanoscience Center, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FinlandNatural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Helsinki, FinlandNatural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Helsinki, FinlandNatural Chemistry Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Turku, FinlandNatural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Helsinki, FinlandDepartment of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Nanoscience Center, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FinlandIntroductionRecurring viral outbreaks have a significant negative impact on society. This creates a need to develop novel strategies to complement the existing antiviral approaches. There is a need for safe and sustainable antiviral solutions derived from nature.ObjectiveThis study aimed to investigate the antiviral potential of willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts against coronaviruses and enteroviruses. Willow bark has long been recognized for its medicinal properties and has been used in traditional medicines. However, its potential as a broad-spectrum antiviral agent remains relatively unexplored.MethodsCytopathic effect inhibition assay and virucidal and qPCR-based assays were used to evaluate the antiviral potential of the bark extracts. The mechanism of action was investigated using time-of-addition assay, confocal microscopy, TEM, thermal, and binding assays. Extracts were fractionated and screened for their chemical composition using high-resolution LC-MS.ResultsThe native Salix samples demonstrated their excellent antiviral potential against the non-enveloped enteroviruses even at room temperature and after 45 s. They were equally effective against the seasonal and pandemic coronaviruses. Confocal microscopy verified the loss of infection capacity by negligible staining of the newly synthesized capsid or spike proteins. Time-of-addition studies demonstrated that Salix bark extract had a direct effect on the virus particles but not through cellular targets. Negative stain TEM and thermal assay showed that antiviral action on enteroviruses was based on the added stability of the virions. In contrast, Salix bark extract caused visible changes in the coronavirus structure, which was demonstrated by the negative stain TEM. However, the binding to the cells was not affected, as verified by the qPCR study. Furthermore, coronavirus accumulated in the cellular endosomes and did not proceed after this stage, based on the confocal studies. None of the tested commercial reference samples, such as salicin, salicylic acid, picein, and triandrin, had any antiviral activity. Fractionation of the extract and subsequent MS analysis revealed that most of the separated fractions were very effective against enteroviruses and contained several different chemical groups such as hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, flavonoids, and procyanidins.ConclusionSalix spp. bark extracts contain several virucidal agents that are likely to act synergistically and directly on the viruses.https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1249794/fullantiviralsnature-based enterovirusescoronavirusesSalix spp.broad-spectrum |
| spellingShingle | Dhanik Reshamwala Sailee Shroff Jaana Liimatainen Jenni Tienaho Mira Laajala Petri Kilpeläinen Anneli Viherä-Aarnio Maarit Karonen Tuula Jyske Varpu Marjomäki Willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts inhibit both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses: study on its anti-coronavirus and anti-enterovirus activities Frontiers in Microbiology antivirals nature-based enteroviruses coronaviruses Salix spp. broad-spectrum |
| title | Willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts inhibit both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses: study on its anti-coronavirus and anti-enterovirus activities |
| title_full | Willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts inhibit both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses: study on its anti-coronavirus and anti-enterovirus activities |
| title_fullStr | Willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts inhibit both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses: study on its anti-coronavirus and anti-enterovirus activities |
| title_full_unstemmed | Willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts inhibit both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses: study on its anti-coronavirus and anti-enterovirus activities |
| title_short | Willow (Salix spp.) bark hot water extracts inhibit both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses: study on its anti-coronavirus and anti-enterovirus activities |
| title_sort | willow salix spp bark hot water extracts inhibit both enveloped and non enveloped viruses study on its anti coronavirus and anti enterovirus activities |
| topic | antivirals nature-based enteroviruses coronaviruses Salix spp. broad-spectrum |
| url | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1249794/full |
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