Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further research
Medicinal and recreational uses of Cannabis sativa, commonly known as cannabis or hemp, has increased following its legalization in certain regions of the world. Cannabis and hemp plants interact with a community of microbes (i.e., the phytobiome), which can influence various aspects of the host pla...
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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Frontiers Media S.A.
2023-10-01
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| Series: | Frontiers in Microbiology |
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| Online Access: | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1278189/full |
| _version_ | 1797656053401255936 |
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| author | Kimberly D. Gwinn Maxwell C. K. Leung Ariell B. Stephens Zamir K. Punja |
| author_facet | Kimberly D. Gwinn Maxwell C. K. Leung Ariell B. Stephens Zamir K. Punja |
| author_sort | Kimberly D. Gwinn |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Medicinal and recreational uses of Cannabis sativa, commonly known as cannabis or hemp, has increased following its legalization in certain regions of the world. Cannabis and hemp plants interact with a community of microbes (i.e., the phytobiome), which can influence various aspects of the host plant. The fungal composition of the C. sativa phytobiome (i.e., mycobiome) currently consists of over 100 species of fungi, which includes phytopathogens, epiphytes, and endophytes, This mycobiome has often been understudied in research aimed at evaluating the safety of cannabis products for humans. Medical research has historically focused instead on substance use and medicinal uses of the plant. Because several components of the mycobiome are reported to produce toxic secondary metabolites (i.e., mycotoxins) that can potentially affect the health of humans and animals and initiate opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients, there is a need to determine the potential health risks that these contaminants could pose for consumers. This review discusses the mycobiome of cannabis and hemp flowers with a focus on plant-infecting and toxigenic fungi that are most commonly found and are of potential concern (e.g., Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Mucor spp.). We review current regulations for molds and mycotoxins worldwide and review assessment methods including culture-based assays, liquid chromatography, immuno-based technologies, and emerging technologies for these contaminants. We also discuss approaches to reduce fungal contaminants on cannabis and hemp and identify future research needs for contaminant detection, data dissemination, and management approaches. These approaches are designed to yield safer products for all consumers. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-11T17:23:43Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-68be823120bd471d90ffe106cadbf60f |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 1664-302X |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-11T17:23:43Z |
| publishDate | 2023-10-01 |
| publisher | Frontiers Media S.A. |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Frontiers in Microbiology |
| spelling | doaj.art-68be823120bd471d90ffe106cadbf60f2023-10-19T07:49:14ZengFrontiers Media S.A.Frontiers in Microbiology1664-302X2023-10-011410.3389/fmicb.2023.12781891278189Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further researchKimberly D. Gwinn0Maxwell C. K. Leung1Ariell B. Stephens2Zamir K. Punja3Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United StatesSchool of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ, United StatesSchool of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ, United StatesDepartment of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, CanadaMedicinal and recreational uses of Cannabis sativa, commonly known as cannabis or hemp, has increased following its legalization in certain regions of the world. Cannabis and hemp plants interact with a community of microbes (i.e., the phytobiome), which can influence various aspects of the host plant. The fungal composition of the C. sativa phytobiome (i.e., mycobiome) currently consists of over 100 species of fungi, which includes phytopathogens, epiphytes, and endophytes, This mycobiome has often been understudied in research aimed at evaluating the safety of cannabis products for humans. Medical research has historically focused instead on substance use and medicinal uses of the plant. Because several components of the mycobiome are reported to produce toxic secondary metabolites (i.e., mycotoxins) that can potentially affect the health of humans and animals and initiate opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients, there is a need to determine the potential health risks that these contaminants could pose for consumers. This review discusses the mycobiome of cannabis and hemp flowers with a focus on plant-infecting and toxigenic fungi that are most commonly found and are of potential concern (e.g., Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Mucor spp.). We review current regulations for molds and mycotoxins worldwide and review assessment methods including culture-based assays, liquid chromatography, immuno-based technologies, and emerging technologies for these contaminants. We also discuss approaches to reduce fungal contaminants on cannabis and hemp and identify future research needs for contaminant detection, data dissemination, and management approaches. These approaches are designed to yield safer products for all consumers.https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1278189/fulltotal yeast and moldquality controlopportunistic infectionmycotoxinshealth riskscannabis safety |
| spellingShingle | Kimberly D. Gwinn Maxwell C. K. Leung Ariell B. Stephens Zamir K. Punja Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further research Frontiers in Microbiology total yeast and mold quality control opportunistic infection mycotoxins health risks cannabis safety |
| title | Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further research |
| title_full | Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further research |
| title_fullStr | Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further research |
| title_full_unstemmed | Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further research |
| title_short | Fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers: implications for consumer health and directions for further research |
| title_sort | fungal and mycotoxin contaminants in cannabis and hemp flowers implications for consumer health and directions for further research |
| topic | total yeast and mold quality control opportunistic infection mycotoxins health risks cannabis safety |
| url | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1278189/full |
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