Determination of the Major By-Products of <i>Citrus hystrix</i> Peel and Their Characteristics in the Context of Utilization in the Industry
Kaffir lime (<i>Citrus hystrix</i>) is a popular citrus in Southeast Asia. Despite the growing interest in the peel of the fruit, the leaves are the most frequently used part of the fruit. The aim of the study was to determine the main by-products of the peel, such as pectins, minerals,...
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MDPI AG
2023-03-01
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| Series: | Molecules |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/6/2596 |
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| author | Martyna Lubinska-Szczygeł Anna Kuczyńska-Łażewska Małgorzata Rutkowska Żaneta Polkowska Elena Katrich Shela Gorinstein |
| author_facet | Martyna Lubinska-Szczygeł Anna Kuczyńska-Łażewska Małgorzata Rutkowska Żaneta Polkowska Elena Katrich Shela Gorinstein |
| author_sort | Martyna Lubinska-Szczygeł |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Kaffir lime (<i>Citrus hystrix</i>) is a popular citrus in Southeast Asia. Despite the growing interest in the peel of the fruit, the leaves are the most frequently used part of the fruit. The aim of the study was to determine the main by-products of the peel, such as pectins, minerals, essential oil, and bioactive compounds, and to evaluate the possibility of using them in various branches of industry. In the study of the essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation performed using the TGA chromatography technique (GC-MS), sabinene (31.93%), β-pinene (26%), and limonene (19%) were selected as the most abundant volatile compounds. Nine microelements (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Co, Ni, Cr, Mo, and V), four macroelements (Mg, Ca, K, and Na), and seven ballast substances (Cd, Hg, Pb, Al, V, Sr, and Pt) were also determined using the microwave plasma-atomic emission spectrometry technique (MP-AES). In the case of microelements, iron 32.72 ± 0.39 mg/kg DW (dry weight) had the highest concentration. In the case of macroelements, the calcium content was 9416 ± 34 mg/kg DW. Optimization of the pectin extraction was also performed by selecting citric acid and obtaining a yield of 7.6–17.6% for acid extraction and 9.9–28.2% for ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), depending on the temperature used. The obtained pectins were characterized by the degree of methylation, galacturonic acid content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging, and DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) analysis. Among bioactive compounds, the contents of polyphenols (22.63 ± 2.12 mg GAE/g DW), flavonoids (2.72 ± 0.25 mg CE/g DW, vitamin C (2.43 ± 0.19 mg Asc), xantoproteins + carotenes (53.8 ± 4.24 ug), anthocyanins (24.8 ± 1.8 mg CGE/kg DW), and chlorophylls A and B (188.5 ± 8.1, 60.4 ± 3.23 µg/g DW) were evaluated. Antioxidant capacity using (cupric ion-reducing antioxidant capacity) CUPRAC and DPPH assays was also provided with the results of 76.98 ± 8.1, and 12.01 ± 1.02 µmol TE/g DW, respectively. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-11T06:07:28Z |
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| publishDate | 2023-03-01 |
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| spelling | doaj.art-875b3dc6ef654b45a7aeba7462c2cfb72023-11-17T12:52:31ZengMDPI AGMolecules1420-30492023-03-01286259610.3390/molecules28062596Determination of the Major By-Products of <i>Citrus hystrix</i> Peel and Their Characteristics in the Context of Utilization in the IndustryMartyna Lubinska-Szczygeł0Anna Kuczyńska-Łażewska1Małgorzata Rutkowska2Żaneta Polkowska3Elena Katrich4Shela Gorinstein5Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, PolandDepartment of Energy Conversion and Storage, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, PolandDepartment of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, PolandDepartment of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, PolandInstitute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9112001, IsraelInstitute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9112001, IsraelKaffir lime (<i>Citrus hystrix</i>) is a popular citrus in Southeast Asia. Despite the growing interest in the peel of the fruit, the leaves are the most frequently used part of the fruit. The aim of the study was to determine the main by-products of the peel, such as pectins, minerals, essential oil, and bioactive compounds, and to evaluate the possibility of using them in various branches of industry. In the study of the essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation performed using the TGA chromatography technique (GC-MS), sabinene (31.93%), β-pinene (26%), and limonene (19%) were selected as the most abundant volatile compounds. Nine microelements (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Co, Ni, Cr, Mo, and V), four macroelements (Mg, Ca, K, and Na), and seven ballast substances (Cd, Hg, Pb, Al, V, Sr, and Pt) were also determined using the microwave plasma-atomic emission spectrometry technique (MP-AES). In the case of microelements, iron 32.72 ± 0.39 mg/kg DW (dry weight) had the highest concentration. In the case of macroelements, the calcium content was 9416 ± 34 mg/kg DW. Optimization of the pectin extraction was also performed by selecting citric acid and obtaining a yield of 7.6–17.6% for acid extraction and 9.9–28.2% for ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), depending on the temperature used. The obtained pectins were characterized by the degree of methylation, galacturonic acid content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging, and DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) analysis. Among bioactive compounds, the contents of polyphenols (22.63 ± 2.12 mg GAE/g DW), flavonoids (2.72 ± 0.25 mg CE/g DW, vitamin C (2.43 ± 0.19 mg Asc), xantoproteins + carotenes (53.8 ± 4.24 ug), anthocyanins (24.8 ± 1.8 mg CGE/kg DW), and chlorophylls A and B (188.5 ± 8.1, 60.4 ± 3.23 µg/g DW) were evaluated. Antioxidant capacity using (cupric ion-reducing antioxidant capacity) CUPRAC and DPPH assays was also provided with the results of 76.98 ± 8.1, and 12.01 ± 1.02 µmol TE/g DW, respectively.https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/6/2596kaffir limeby-productsessential oilpectinsbioactive compoundsantioxidant activity |
| spellingShingle | Martyna Lubinska-Szczygeł Anna Kuczyńska-Łażewska Małgorzata Rutkowska Żaneta Polkowska Elena Katrich Shela Gorinstein Determination of the Major By-Products of <i>Citrus hystrix</i> Peel and Their Characteristics in the Context of Utilization in the Industry Molecules kaffir lime by-products essential oil pectins bioactive compounds antioxidant activity |
| title | Determination of the Major By-Products of <i>Citrus hystrix</i> Peel and Their Characteristics in the Context of Utilization in the Industry |
| title_full | Determination of the Major By-Products of <i>Citrus hystrix</i> Peel and Their Characteristics in the Context of Utilization in the Industry |
| title_fullStr | Determination of the Major By-Products of <i>Citrus hystrix</i> Peel and Their Characteristics in the Context of Utilization in the Industry |
| title_full_unstemmed | Determination of the Major By-Products of <i>Citrus hystrix</i> Peel and Their Characteristics in the Context of Utilization in the Industry |
| title_short | Determination of the Major By-Products of <i>Citrus hystrix</i> Peel and Their Characteristics in the Context of Utilization in the Industry |
| title_sort | determination of the major by products of i citrus hystrix i peel and their characteristics in the context of utilization in the industry |
| topic | kaffir lime by-products essential oil pectins bioactive compounds antioxidant activity |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/6/2596 |
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