Commercial Optical and Acoustic Sensor Performances under Varying Turbidity, Illumination, and Target Distances
Acoustic and optical sensing modalities represent two of the primary sensing methods within underwater environments, and both have been researched extensively in previous works. Acoustic sensing is the premier method due to its high transmissivity in water and its relative immunity to environmental...
| Main Authors: | , , , , |
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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MDPI AG
2023-07-01
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| Series: | Sensors |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/14/6575 |
| _version_ | 1797587534141718528 |
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| author | Fredrik Fogh Sørensen Christian Mai Ole Marius Olsen Jesper Liniger Simon Pedersen |
| author_facet | Fredrik Fogh Sørensen Christian Mai Ole Marius Olsen Jesper Liniger Simon Pedersen |
| author_sort | Fredrik Fogh Sørensen |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Acoustic and optical sensing modalities represent two of the primary sensing methods within underwater environments, and both have been researched extensively in previous works. Acoustic sensing is the premier method due to its high transmissivity in water and its relative immunity to environmental factors such as water clarity. Optical sensing is, however, valuable for many operational and inspection tasks and is readily understood by human operators. In this work, we quantify and compare the operational characteristics and environmental effects of turbidity and illumination on two commercial-off-the-shelf sensors and an additional augmented optical method, including: a high-frequency, forward-looking inspection sonar, a stereo camera with built-in stereo depth estimation, and color imaging, where a laser has been added for distance triangulation. The sensors have been compared in a controlled underwater environment with known target objects to ascertain quantitative operation performance, and it is shown that optical stereo depth estimation and laser triangulation operate satisfactorily at low and medium turbidites up to a distance of approximately one meter, with an error below 2 cm and 12 cm, respectively; acoustic measurements are almost completely unaffected up to two meters under high turbidity, with an error below 5 cm. Moreover, the stereo vision algorithm is slightly more robust than laser-line triangulation across turbidity and lighting conditions. Future work will concern the improvement of the stereo reconstruction and laser triangulation by algorithm enhancement and the fusion of the two sensing modalities. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-11T00:40:14Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-93af879d079a478289e6afc2958406f6 |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 1424-8220 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-11T00:40:14Z |
| publishDate | 2023-07-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Sensors |
| spelling | doaj.art-93af879d079a478289e6afc2958406f62023-11-18T21:19:38ZengMDPI AGSensors1424-82202023-07-012314657510.3390/s23146575Commercial Optical and Acoustic Sensor Performances under Varying Turbidity, Illumination, and Target DistancesFredrik Fogh Sørensen0Christian Mai1Ole Marius Olsen2Jesper Liniger3Simon Pedersen4AAU Energy, Aalborg University, Niels Bohrs Vej 8, 6700 Esbjerg, DenmarkAAU Energy, Aalborg University, Niels Bohrs Vej 8, 6700 Esbjerg, DenmarkAAU Energy, Aalborg University, Niels Bohrs Vej 8, 6700 Esbjerg, DenmarkAAU Energy, Aalborg University, Niels Bohrs Vej 8, 6700 Esbjerg, DenmarkAAU Energy, Aalborg University, Niels Bohrs Vej 8, 6700 Esbjerg, DenmarkAcoustic and optical sensing modalities represent two of the primary sensing methods within underwater environments, and both have been researched extensively in previous works. Acoustic sensing is the premier method due to its high transmissivity in water and its relative immunity to environmental factors such as water clarity. Optical sensing is, however, valuable for many operational and inspection tasks and is readily understood by human operators. In this work, we quantify and compare the operational characteristics and environmental effects of turbidity and illumination on two commercial-off-the-shelf sensors and an additional augmented optical method, including: a high-frequency, forward-looking inspection sonar, a stereo camera with built-in stereo depth estimation, and color imaging, where a laser has been added for distance triangulation. The sensors have been compared in a controlled underwater environment with known target objects to ascertain quantitative operation performance, and it is shown that optical stereo depth estimation and laser triangulation operate satisfactorily at low and medium turbidites up to a distance of approximately one meter, with an error below 2 cm and 12 cm, respectively; acoustic measurements are almost completely unaffected up to two meters under high turbidity, with an error below 5 cm. Moreover, the stereo vision algorithm is slightly more robust than laser-line triangulation across turbidity and lighting conditions. Future work will concern the improvement of the stereo reconstruction and laser triangulation by algorithm enhancement and the fusion of the two sensing modalities.https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/14/6575sensor testing and evaluationmultiple-sensor systemsimaging sensorsacoustic sensorssonar measurementsstereo vision |
| spellingShingle | Fredrik Fogh Sørensen Christian Mai Ole Marius Olsen Jesper Liniger Simon Pedersen Commercial Optical and Acoustic Sensor Performances under Varying Turbidity, Illumination, and Target Distances Sensors sensor testing and evaluation multiple-sensor systems imaging sensors acoustic sensors sonar measurements stereo vision |
| title | Commercial Optical and Acoustic Sensor Performances under Varying Turbidity, Illumination, and Target Distances |
| title_full | Commercial Optical and Acoustic Sensor Performances under Varying Turbidity, Illumination, and Target Distances |
| title_fullStr | Commercial Optical and Acoustic Sensor Performances under Varying Turbidity, Illumination, and Target Distances |
| title_full_unstemmed | Commercial Optical and Acoustic Sensor Performances under Varying Turbidity, Illumination, and Target Distances |
| title_short | Commercial Optical and Acoustic Sensor Performances under Varying Turbidity, Illumination, and Target Distances |
| title_sort | commercial optical and acoustic sensor performances under varying turbidity illumination and target distances |
| topic | sensor testing and evaluation multiple-sensor systems imaging sensors acoustic sensors sonar measurements stereo vision |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/14/6575 |
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