The historical impact of anthropogenic air-borne sulphur on the Pleistocene rock art of Sulawesi
Abstract The Maros-Pangkep karst in southwest Sulawesi, Indonesia, contains some of the world’s oldest rock art. However, the Pleistocene images survive only as weathered patches of pigment on exfoliated limestone surfaces. Salt efflorescence underneath the case-hardened limestone substrate causes s...
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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Nature Portfolio
2022-12-01
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| Series: | Scientific Reports |
| Online Access: | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-25810-1 |
| _version_ | 1798005282535636992 |
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| author | Michael K. Gagan Halmar Halide Raden Cecep Eka Permana Rustan Lebe Gavin B. Dunbar Alena K. Kimbrough Heather Scott-Gagan Dan Zwartz Wahyoe S. Hantoro |
| author_facet | Michael K. Gagan Halmar Halide Raden Cecep Eka Permana Rustan Lebe Gavin B. Dunbar Alena K. Kimbrough Heather Scott-Gagan Dan Zwartz Wahyoe S. Hantoro |
| author_sort | Michael K. Gagan |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Abstract The Maros-Pangkep karst in southwest Sulawesi, Indonesia, contains some of the world’s oldest rock art. However, the Pleistocene images survive only as weathered patches of pigment on exfoliated limestone surfaces. Salt efflorescence underneath the case-hardened limestone substrate causes spall-flaking, and it has been proposed that the loss of artwork has accelerated over recent decades. Here, we utilise historical photographs and superposition constraints to show that the bulk of the damage was present before 1950 CE, and describe the role of anthropogenic sulphur emissions in promoting gypsum-salt efflorescence and rock art decay. The rock art shelters have been exposed to domestic fire-use and intensive rice cultivation with post-harvest burning of straw for hundreds (if not thousands) of years, both of which release chemically reactive sulphur oxides for gypsum formation, with cumulative effects. Analysis of time-lapse photography indicates that the rate of rock art loss may be on the decline, consistent with the history of fire-use in southwest Sulawesi. At present, vandalism and sulphur emissions from diesel-powered traffic and cement-based infrastructure development constitute localised threats. Our findings indicate that there are grounds for being cautiously optimistic that targeted conservation measures will ensure the longevity of some of our oldest artistic treasures. |
| first_indexed | 2024-04-11T12:36:48Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-9545a572358e4a66aba88cc1b5e6a204 |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2045-2322 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-04-11T12:36:48Z |
| publishDate | 2022-12-01 |
| publisher | Nature Portfolio |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Scientific Reports |
| spelling | doaj.art-9545a572358e4a66aba88cc1b5e6a2042022-12-22T04:23:36ZengNature PortfolioScientific Reports2045-23222022-12-0112111410.1038/s41598-022-25810-1The historical impact of anthropogenic air-borne sulphur on the Pleistocene rock art of SulawesiMichael K. Gagan0Halmar Halide1Raden Cecep Eka Permana2Rustan Lebe3Gavin B. Dunbar4Alena K. Kimbrough5Heather Scott-Gagan6Dan Zwartz7Wahyoe S. Hantoro8School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of WollongongDepartemen Geofisika, Fakultas Matematika Dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Universitas HasanuddinDepartemen Arkeologi, Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya, Universitas IndonesiaBalai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Sulawesi SelatanAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of WellingtonSchool of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of WollongongAustralasian Earth SystemsCentre for Science in Society, Victoria University of WellingtonSchool of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of WollongongAbstract The Maros-Pangkep karst in southwest Sulawesi, Indonesia, contains some of the world’s oldest rock art. However, the Pleistocene images survive only as weathered patches of pigment on exfoliated limestone surfaces. Salt efflorescence underneath the case-hardened limestone substrate causes spall-flaking, and it has been proposed that the loss of artwork has accelerated over recent decades. Here, we utilise historical photographs and superposition constraints to show that the bulk of the damage was present before 1950 CE, and describe the role of anthropogenic sulphur emissions in promoting gypsum-salt efflorescence and rock art decay. The rock art shelters have been exposed to domestic fire-use and intensive rice cultivation with post-harvest burning of straw for hundreds (if not thousands) of years, both of which release chemically reactive sulphur oxides for gypsum formation, with cumulative effects. Analysis of time-lapse photography indicates that the rate of rock art loss may be on the decline, consistent with the history of fire-use in southwest Sulawesi. At present, vandalism and sulphur emissions from diesel-powered traffic and cement-based infrastructure development constitute localised threats. Our findings indicate that there are grounds for being cautiously optimistic that targeted conservation measures will ensure the longevity of some of our oldest artistic treasures.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-25810-1 |
| spellingShingle | Michael K. Gagan Halmar Halide Raden Cecep Eka Permana Rustan Lebe Gavin B. Dunbar Alena K. Kimbrough Heather Scott-Gagan Dan Zwartz Wahyoe S. Hantoro The historical impact of anthropogenic air-borne sulphur on the Pleistocene rock art of Sulawesi Scientific Reports |
| title | The historical impact of anthropogenic air-borne sulphur on the Pleistocene rock art of Sulawesi |
| title_full | The historical impact of anthropogenic air-borne sulphur on the Pleistocene rock art of Sulawesi |
| title_fullStr | The historical impact of anthropogenic air-borne sulphur on the Pleistocene rock art of Sulawesi |
| title_full_unstemmed | The historical impact of anthropogenic air-borne sulphur on the Pleistocene rock art of Sulawesi |
| title_short | The historical impact of anthropogenic air-borne sulphur on the Pleistocene rock art of Sulawesi |
| title_sort | historical impact of anthropogenic air borne sulphur on the pleistocene rock art of sulawesi |
| url | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-25810-1 |
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