Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults
Citrinin (CIT), a mycotoxin known to exert nephrotoxicity, is a contaminant in food and feed. Since CIT contamination is not regularly analyzed, data on its occurrence and especially levels in food commodities are insufficient for conducting a conventional exposure assessment. Yet, human biomonitori...
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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MDPI AG
2022-12-01
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| Series: | Toxins |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/15/1/26 |
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| author | Gisela H. Degen Jörg Reinders Martin Kraft Wolfgang Völkel Felicia Gerull Rafael Burghardt Silvia Sievering Jennifer Engelmann Yvonni Chovolou Jan G. Hengstler Hermann Fromme |
| author_facet | Gisela H. Degen Jörg Reinders Martin Kraft Wolfgang Völkel Felicia Gerull Rafael Burghardt Silvia Sievering Jennifer Engelmann Yvonni Chovolou Jan G. Hengstler Hermann Fromme |
| author_sort | Gisela H. Degen |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Citrinin (CIT), a mycotoxin known to exert nephrotoxicity, is a contaminant in food and feed. Since CIT contamination is not regularly analyzed, data on its occurrence and especially levels in food commodities are insufficient for conducting a conventional exposure assessment. Yet, human biomonitoring, i.e., an analysis of CIT and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT) in urine samples allows to estimate exposure. This study investigated CIT exposure in young (2–14 years) and adult (24–61 years) residents of three federal states in Germany. A total of 179 urine samples from children and 142 from adults were collected and analyzed by a targeted LC-MS/MS based method for presence of CIT and DH-CIT. At least one of the biomarkers was detected and quantified in all urines, which indicated a widespread dietary exposure to the mycotoxin in Germany. Interestingly, the biomarker concentrations of CIT<sub>total</sub> (sum of CIT and DH-CIT) were higher in children’s urine (range 0.05–7.62 ng/mL; median of 0.54 ng/mL) than in urines from adults (range 0.04–3.5 ng/mL; median 0.3 ng/mL). The biomarker levels (CIT<sub>total</sub>) of individual urines served to calculate the probable daily CIT intake, for comparison to a value of 0.2 µg/kg bw/day defined as ‘level of no concern for nephrotoxicity’ by the European Food Safety Authority. The median exposure of German adults was 0.013 µg/kg b.w., with only one urine donor exceeding this provisional tolerable daily intake (pTDI) for CIT. The median exposure of children was 0.05 µg/kg bw per day (i.e., 25% of the pTDI); however, CIT exposure in 12 individuals (6.3% of our study group) exceeded the limit value, with a maximum intake of 0.46 µg/kg b.w. per day. In conclusion, these results show evidence for non-negligible exposure to CIT in some individuals in Germany, mainly in children. Therefore, further biomonitoring studies and investigations aimed to identify the major sources of CIT exposure in food commodities are required. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-09T11:06:21Z |
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| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2072-6651 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-09T11:06:21Z |
| publishDate | 2022-12-01 |
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| spelling | doaj.art-9c284fac797a45058d6dd0287381e1e12023-12-01T00:56:41ZengMDPI AGToxins2072-66512022-12-011512610.3390/toxins15010026Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and AdultsGisela H. Degen0Jörg Reinders1Martin Kraft2Wolfgang Völkel3Felicia Gerull4Rafael Burghardt5Silvia Sievering6Jennifer Engelmann7Yvonni Chovolou8Jan G. Hengstler9Hermann Fromme10Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystrasse 67, D-44139 Dortmund, GermanyLeibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystrasse 67, D-44139 Dortmund, GermanyState Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection North-Rhine Westphalia, Department of Environmental Medicine, Wallneyer Straße 6, D-45133 Essen, GermanyBavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Department of Chemical Safety, Toxicology and Exposure Monitoring, Pfarrstraße 3, D-80538 München, GermanyLandeslabor Berlin-Brandenburg, Fachbereich IV-4, Umweltbezogener Gesundheitsschutz, Rudower Chaussee 39, D-12489 Berlin, GermanyLandeslabor Berlin-Brandenburg, Fachbereich IV-4, Umweltbezogener Gesundheitsschutz, Rudower Chaussee 39, D-12489 Berlin, GermanyState Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection North-Rhine Westphalia, Department of Environmental Medicine, Wallneyer Straße 6, D-45133 Essen, GermanyState Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection North-Rhine Westphalia, Department of Environmental Medicine, Wallneyer Straße 6, D-45133 Essen, GermanyState Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection North-Rhine Westphalia, Department of Environmental Medicine, Wallneyer Straße 6, D-45133 Essen, GermanyLeibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystrasse 67, D-44139 Dortmund, GermanyInstitut und Poliklinik für Arbeits-, Sozial- und Umweltmedizin, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Ziemssenstraße 1, D-80336 München, GermanyCitrinin (CIT), a mycotoxin known to exert nephrotoxicity, is a contaminant in food and feed. Since CIT contamination is not regularly analyzed, data on its occurrence and especially levels in food commodities are insufficient for conducting a conventional exposure assessment. Yet, human biomonitoring, i.e., an analysis of CIT and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT) in urine samples allows to estimate exposure. This study investigated CIT exposure in young (2–14 years) and adult (24–61 years) residents of three federal states in Germany. A total of 179 urine samples from children and 142 from adults were collected and analyzed by a targeted LC-MS/MS based method for presence of CIT and DH-CIT. At least one of the biomarkers was detected and quantified in all urines, which indicated a widespread dietary exposure to the mycotoxin in Germany. Interestingly, the biomarker concentrations of CIT<sub>total</sub> (sum of CIT and DH-CIT) were higher in children’s urine (range 0.05–7.62 ng/mL; median of 0.54 ng/mL) than in urines from adults (range 0.04–3.5 ng/mL; median 0.3 ng/mL). The biomarker levels (CIT<sub>total</sub>) of individual urines served to calculate the probable daily CIT intake, for comparison to a value of 0.2 µg/kg bw/day defined as ‘level of no concern for nephrotoxicity’ by the European Food Safety Authority. The median exposure of German adults was 0.013 µg/kg b.w., with only one urine donor exceeding this provisional tolerable daily intake (pTDI) for CIT. The median exposure of children was 0.05 µg/kg bw per day (i.e., 25% of the pTDI); however, CIT exposure in 12 individuals (6.3% of our study group) exceeded the limit value, with a maximum intake of 0.46 µg/kg b.w. per day. In conclusion, these results show evidence for non-negligible exposure to CIT in some individuals in Germany, mainly in children. Therefore, further biomonitoring studies and investigations aimed to identify the major sources of CIT exposure in food commodities are required.https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/15/1/26biomonitoringcitrinindihydrocitrinoneexposuremycotoxinnephrotoxin |
| spellingShingle | Gisela H. Degen Jörg Reinders Martin Kraft Wolfgang Völkel Felicia Gerull Rafael Burghardt Silvia Sievering Jennifer Engelmann Yvonni Chovolou Jan G. Hengstler Hermann Fromme Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults Toxins biomonitoring citrinin dihydrocitrinone exposure mycotoxin nephrotoxin |
| title | Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults |
| title_full | Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults |
| title_fullStr | Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults |
| title_full_unstemmed | Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults |
| title_short | Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults |
| title_sort | citrinin exposure in germany urine biomarker analysis in children and adults |
| topic | biomonitoring citrinin dihydrocitrinone exposure mycotoxin nephrotoxin |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/15/1/26 |
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