Bidirectional Associations Between Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms and Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Dynamic Panel Models With Fixed Effects
Background: Understanding the direction and magnitude of mental health-loneliness associations across time is important to understand how best to prevent and treat mental health and loneliness. This study used weekly data collected over 8 weeks throughout the COVID-19 pandemic to expand previous fin...
| Main Authors: | , , , , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Frontiers Media S.A.
2021-12-01
|
| Series: | Frontiers in Psychiatry |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.738892/full |
| _version_ | 1818701305801080832 |
|---|---|
| author | Cillian P. McDowell Cillian P. McDowell Jacob D. Meyer Daniel W. Russell Cassandra Sue Brower Jeni Lansing Matthew P. Herring Matthew P. Herring Matthew P. Herring |
| author_facet | Cillian P. McDowell Cillian P. McDowell Jacob D. Meyer Daniel W. Russell Cassandra Sue Brower Jeni Lansing Matthew P. Herring Matthew P. Herring Matthew P. Herring |
| author_sort | Cillian P. McDowell |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Background: Understanding the direction and magnitude of mental health-loneliness associations across time is important to understand how best to prevent and treat mental health and loneliness. This study used weekly data collected over 8 weeks throughout the COVID-19 pandemic to expand previous findings and using dynamic panel models with fixed effects which account for all time-invariant confounding and reverse causation.Methods: Prospective data on a convenience and snowball sample from all 50 US states and the District of Colombia (n = 2,361 with ≥2 responses, 63.8% female; 76% retention rate) were collected weekly via online survey at nine consecutive timepoints (April 3–June 3, 2020). Anxiety and depressive symptoms and loneliness were assessed at each timepoint and participants reported the COVID-19 containment strategies they were following. Dynamic panel models with fixed effects examined bidirectional associations between anxiety and depressive symptoms and loneliness, and associations of COVID-19 containment strategies with these outcomes.Results: Depressive symptoms were associated with small increases in both anxiety symptoms (β = 0.065, 95% CI = 0.022–0.109; p = 0.004) and loneliness (β = 0.019, 0.008–0.030; p = 0.001) at the subsequent timepoint. Anxiety symptoms were associated with a small subsequent increase in loneliness (β = 0.014, 0.003–0.025; p = 0.015) but not depressive symptoms (β = 0.025, −0.020–0.070; p = 0.281). Loneliness was strongly associated with subsequent increases in both depressive (β = 0.309, 0.159–0.459; p < 0.001) and anxiety (β = 0.301, 0.165–0.436; p < 0.001) symptoms. Compared to social distancing, adhering to stay-at-home orders or quarantining were not associated with anxiety and depressive symptoms or loneliness (both p ≥ 0.095).Conclusions: High loneliness may be a key risk factor for the development of future anxiety or depressive symptoms, underscoring the need to combat or prevent loneliness both throughout and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 containment strategies were not associated with mental health, indicating that other factors may explain previous reports of mental health deterioration throughout the pandemic. |
| first_indexed | 2024-12-17T15:18:44Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-a2b84af663dc4c5392b582931c824b15 |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 1664-0640 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-12-17T15:18:44Z |
| publishDate | 2021-12-01 |
| publisher | Frontiers Media S.A. |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Frontiers in Psychiatry |
| spelling | doaj.art-a2b84af663dc4c5392b582931c824b152022-12-21T21:43:29ZengFrontiers Media S.A.Frontiers in Psychiatry1664-06402021-12-011210.3389/fpsyt.2021.738892738892Bidirectional Associations Between Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms and Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Dynamic Panel Models With Fixed EffectsCillian P. McDowell0Cillian P. McDowell1Jacob D. Meyer2Daniel W. Russell3Cassandra Sue Brower4Jeni Lansing5Matthew P. Herring6Matthew P. Herring7Matthew P. Herring8The Irish Longitudinal Study of Ageing, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, IrelandSchool of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, IrelandDepartment of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United StatesDepartment of Human Development and Family Studies, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United StatesDepartment of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United StatesDepartment of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United StatesThe Irish Longitudinal Study of Ageing, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, IrelandPhysical Activity for Health Research Cluster, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, IrelandDepartment of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, IrelandBackground: Understanding the direction and magnitude of mental health-loneliness associations across time is important to understand how best to prevent and treat mental health and loneliness. This study used weekly data collected over 8 weeks throughout the COVID-19 pandemic to expand previous findings and using dynamic panel models with fixed effects which account for all time-invariant confounding and reverse causation.Methods: Prospective data on a convenience and snowball sample from all 50 US states and the District of Colombia (n = 2,361 with ≥2 responses, 63.8% female; 76% retention rate) were collected weekly via online survey at nine consecutive timepoints (April 3–June 3, 2020). Anxiety and depressive symptoms and loneliness were assessed at each timepoint and participants reported the COVID-19 containment strategies they were following. Dynamic panel models with fixed effects examined bidirectional associations between anxiety and depressive symptoms and loneliness, and associations of COVID-19 containment strategies with these outcomes.Results: Depressive symptoms were associated with small increases in both anxiety symptoms (β = 0.065, 95% CI = 0.022–0.109; p = 0.004) and loneliness (β = 0.019, 0.008–0.030; p = 0.001) at the subsequent timepoint. Anxiety symptoms were associated with a small subsequent increase in loneliness (β = 0.014, 0.003–0.025; p = 0.015) but not depressive symptoms (β = 0.025, −0.020–0.070; p = 0.281). Loneliness was strongly associated with subsequent increases in both depressive (β = 0.309, 0.159–0.459; p < 0.001) and anxiety (β = 0.301, 0.165–0.436; p < 0.001) symptoms. Compared to social distancing, adhering to stay-at-home orders or quarantining were not associated with anxiety and depressive symptoms or loneliness (both p ≥ 0.095).Conclusions: High loneliness may be a key risk factor for the development of future anxiety or depressive symptoms, underscoring the need to combat or prevent loneliness both throughout and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 containment strategies were not associated with mental health, indicating that other factors may explain previous reports of mental health deterioration throughout the pandemic.https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.738892/fullmental healthCOVID-19panel datacoronavirusloneliness |
| spellingShingle | Cillian P. McDowell Cillian P. McDowell Jacob D. Meyer Daniel W. Russell Cassandra Sue Brower Jeni Lansing Matthew P. Herring Matthew P. Herring Matthew P. Herring Bidirectional Associations Between Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms and Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Dynamic Panel Models With Fixed Effects Frontiers in Psychiatry mental health COVID-19 panel data coronavirus loneliness |
| title | Bidirectional Associations Between Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms and Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Dynamic Panel Models With Fixed Effects |
| title_full | Bidirectional Associations Between Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms and Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Dynamic Panel Models With Fixed Effects |
| title_fullStr | Bidirectional Associations Between Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms and Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Dynamic Panel Models With Fixed Effects |
| title_full_unstemmed | Bidirectional Associations Between Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms and Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Dynamic Panel Models With Fixed Effects |
| title_short | Bidirectional Associations Between Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms and Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Dynamic Panel Models With Fixed Effects |
| title_sort | bidirectional associations between depressive and anxiety symptoms and loneliness during the covid 19 pandemic dynamic panel models with fixed effects |
| topic | mental health COVID-19 panel data coronavirus loneliness |
| url | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.738892/full |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT cillianpmcdowell bidirectionalassociationsbetweendepressiveandanxietysymptomsandlonelinessduringthecovid19pandemicdynamicpanelmodelswithfixedeffects AT cillianpmcdowell bidirectionalassociationsbetweendepressiveandanxietysymptomsandlonelinessduringthecovid19pandemicdynamicpanelmodelswithfixedeffects AT jacobdmeyer bidirectionalassociationsbetweendepressiveandanxietysymptomsandlonelinessduringthecovid19pandemicdynamicpanelmodelswithfixedeffects AT danielwrussell bidirectionalassociationsbetweendepressiveandanxietysymptomsandlonelinessduringthecovid19pandemicdynamicpanelmodelswithfixedeffects AT cassandrasuebrower bidirectionalassociationsbetweendepressiveandanxietysymptomsandlonelinessduringthecovid19pandemicdynamicpanelmodelswithfixedeffects AT jenilansing bidirectionalassociationsbetweendepressiveandanxietysymptomsandlonelinessduringthecovid19pandemicdynamicpanelmodelswithfixedeffects AT matthewpherring bidirectionalassociationsbetweendepressiveandanxietysymptomsandlonelinessduringthecovid19pandemicdynamicpanelmodelswithfixedeffects AT matthewpherring bidirectionalassociationsbetweendepressiveandanxietysymptomsandlonelinessduringthecovid19pandemicdynamicpanelmodelswithfixedeffects AT matthewpherring bidirectionalassociationsbetweendepressiveandanxietysymptomsandlonelinessduringthecovid19pandemicdynamicpanelmodelswithfixedeffects |