Polycaprolactone-Based Fibrous Scaffolds Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Repair
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries pose significant challenges, driving the need for innovative repair strategies. Tissue engineering (TE) has emerged as a promising field for ACL injuries. Wet spinning is a filament production technique that enables precise control over filament alignment, d...
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MDPI AG
2025-02-01
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/15/5/2301 |
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| author | Joana M. Rocha Rui P. C. L. Sousa Diogo Sousa Shafagh D. Tohidi Artur Ribeiro Raul Fangueiro Diana P. Ferreira |
| author_facet | Joana M. Rocha Rui P. C. L. Sousa Diogo Sousa Shafagh D. Tohidi Artur Ribeiro Raul Fangueiro Diana P. Ferreira |
| author_sort | Joana M. Rocha |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries pose significant challenges, driving the need for innovative repair strategies. Tissue engineering (TE) has emerged as a promising field for ACL injuries. Wet spinning is a filament production technique that enables precise control over filament alignment, diameter, and porosity, making it suitable for developing new scaffolds for ACL injuries. This study develops fibrous scaffolds using wet spinning of polycaprolactone (PCL) reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) to enhance mechanical properties. Wet spinning was employed to fabricate fibrous scaffolds, utilizing PCL as the primary polymer due to its favorable biocompatibility and degradability. An automated collector was developed and optimized, which allowed the stretching of the PCL filaments to diameters as low as 30 µm. Several filaments were explored and characterized using SEM, TGA, and mechanical tests. The optimized PCL/CNC filaments were used to develop 3D braided structures that mimic ACL structure. The combination of wet-spun PCL/CNC filaments (with an optimized stirring method) and the braiding procedure allowed for fully biocompatible scaffolds that mimic both the structure and the mechanical properties of native ACL. Cytotoxicity and biocompatibility tests showed cell viability and proliferation values above 99% and 81%, respectively. These findings underscore the potential of CNC-reinforced PCL scaffolds as promising candidates for ACL repair, laying the groundwork for future biomedical applications. |
| first_indexed | 2025-03-14T01:43:05Z |
| format | Article |
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| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2076-3417 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2025-03-14T01:43:05Z |
| publishDate | 2025-02-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Applied Sciences |
| spelling | doaj.art-aa413765cdd846e6bd652fc411a008532025-03-12T13:52:39ZengMDPI AGApplied Sciences2076-34172025-02-01155230110.3390/app15052301Polycaprolactone-Based Fibrous Scaffolds Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Anterior Cruciate Ligament RepairJoana M. Rocha0Rui P. C. L. Sousa1Diogo Sousa2Shafagh D. Tohidi3Artur Ribeiro4Raul Fangueiro5Diana P. Ferreira6Centre for Textile Science and Technology (2C2T), University of Minho, 4800-056 Guimarães, PortugalCentre for Textile Science and Technology (2C2T), University of Minho, 4800-056 Guimarães, PortugalCentre for Textile Science and Technology (2C2T), University of Minho, 4800-056 Guimarães, PortugalDTx CoLab-Digital Transformation CoLab, University of Minho, 4800-056 Guimarães, PortugalCentre of Biological Engineering, Campus de Gualtar, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, PortugalCentre for Textile Science and Technology (2C2T), University of Minho, 4800-056 Guimarães, PortugalCentre for Textile Science and Technology (2C2T), University of Minho, 4800-056 Guimarães, PortugalAnterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries pose significant challenges, driving the need for innovative repair strategies. Tissue engineering (TE) has emerged as a promising field for ACL injuries. Wet spinning is a filament production technique that enables precise control over filament alignment, diameter, and porosity, making it suitable for developing new scaffolds for ACL injuries. This study develops fibrous scaffolds using wet spinning of polycaprolactone (PCL) reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) to enhance mechanical properties. Wet spinning was employed to fabricate fibrous scaffolds, utilizing PCL as the primary polymer due to its favorable biocompatibility and degradability. An automated collector was developed and optimized, which allowed the stretching of the PCL filaments to diameters as low as 30 µm. Several filaments were explored and characterized using SEM, TGA, and mechanical tests. The optimized PCL/CNC filaments were used to develop 3D braided structures that mimic ACL structure. The combination of wet-spun PCL/CNC filaments (with an optimized stirring method) and the braiding procedure allowed for fully biocompatible scaffolds that mimic both the structure and the mechanical properties of native ACL. Cytotoxicity and biocompatibility tests showed cell viability and proliferation values above 99% and 81%, respectively. These findings underscore the potential of CNC-reinforced PCL scaffolds as promising candidates for ACL repair, laying the groundwork for future biomedical applications.https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/15/5/2301anterior cruciate ligamentpolycaprolactonecellulose nanocrystalswet spinningtissue engineering |
| spellingShingle | Joana M. Rocha Rui P. C. L. Sousa Diogo Sousa Shafagh D. Tohidi Artur Ribeiro Raul Fangueiro Diana P. Ferreira Polycaprolactone-Based Fibrous Scaffolds Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Repair Applied Sciences anterior cruciate ligament polycaprolactone cellulose nanocrystals wet spinning tissue engineering |
| title | Polycaprolactone-Based Fibrous Scaffolds Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Repair |
| title_full | Polycaprolactone-Based Fibrous Scaffolds Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Repair |
| title_fullStr | Polycaprolactone-Based Fibrous Scaffolds Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Repair |
| title_full_unstemmed | Polycaprolactone-Based Fibrous Scaffolds Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Repair |
| title_short | Polycaprolactone-Based Fibrous Scaffolds Reinforced with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Repair |
| title_sort | polycaprolactone based fibrous scaffolds reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals for anterior cruciate ligament repair |
| topic | anterior cruciate ligament polycaprolactone cellulose nanocrystals wet spinning tissue engineering |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/15/5/2301 |
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