Prior test experience confounds longitudinal tracking of adolescent cognitive and motor development
Abstract Background Accurate measurement of trajectories in longitudinal studies, considered the gold standard method for tracking functional growth during adolescence, decline in aging, and change after head injury, is subject to confounding by testing experience. Methods We measured change in cogn...
| Main Authors: | , , , , , , , , , , , , , |
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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BMC
2022-06-01
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| Series: | BMC Medical Research Methodology |
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| Online Access: | https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-022-01606-9 |
| _version_ | 1828197580565118976 |
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| author | Edith V. Sullivan Wesley K. Thompson Ty Brumback Devin Prouty Susan F. Tapert Sandra A. Brown Michael D. De Bellis Kate B. Nooner Fiona C. Baker Ian M. Colrain Duncan B. Clark Bonnie J. Nagel Kilian M. Pohl Adolf Pfefferbaum |
| author_facet | Edith V. Sullivan Wesley K. Thompson Ty Brumback Devin Prouty Susan F. Tapert Sandra A. Brown Michael D. De Bellis Kate B. Nooner Fiona C. Baker Ian M. Colrain Duncan B. Clark Bonnie J. Nagel Kilian M. Pohl Adolf Pfefferbaum |
| author_sort | Edith V. Sullivan |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Abstract Background Accurate measurement of trajectories in longitudinal studies, considered the gold standard method for tracking functional growth during adolescence, decline in aging, and change after head injury, is subject to confounding by testing experience. Methods We measured change in cognitive and motor abilities over four test sessions (baseline and three annual assessments) in 154 male and 165 female participants (baseline age 12–21 years) from the National Consortium on Alcohol and NeuroDevelopment in Adolescence (NCANDA) study. At each of the four test sessions, these participants were given a test battery using computerized administration and traditional pencil and paper tests that yielded accuracy and speed measures for multiple component cognitive (Abstraction, Attention, Emotion, Episodic memory, Working memory, and General Ability) and motor (Ataxia and Speed) functions. The analysis aim was to dissociate neurodevelopment from testing experience by using an adaptation of the twice-minus-once tested method, which calculated the difference between longitudinal change (comprising developmental plus practice effects) and practice-free initial cross-sectional performance for each consecutive pairs of test sessions. Accordingly, the first set of analyses quantified the effects of learning (i.e., prior test experience) on accuracy and after speed domain scores. Then developmental effects were determined for each domain for accuracy and speed having removed the measured learning effects. Results The greatest gains in performance occurred between the first and second sessions, especially in younger participants, regardless of sex, but practice gains continued to accrue thereafter for several functions. For all 8 accuracy composite scores, the developmental effect after accounting for learning was significant across age and was adequately described by linear fits. The learning-adjusted developmental effects for speed were adequately described by linear fits for Abstraction, Emotion, Episodic Memory, General Ability, and Motor scores, although a nonlinear fit was better for Attention, Working Memory, and Average Speed scores. Conclusion Thus, what appeared as accelerated cognitive and motor development was, in most cases, attributable to learning. Recognition of the substantial influence of prior testing experience is critical for accurate characterization of normal development and for developing norms for clinical neuropsychological investigations of conditions affecting the brain. |
| first_indexed | 2024-04-12T10:21:45Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-ab2e37d4accd4abca2798e7f3379de9b |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 1471-2288 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-04-12T10:21:45Z |
| publishDate | 2022-06-01 |
| publisher | BMC |
| record_format | Article |
| series | BMC Medical Research Methodology |
| spelling | doaj.art-ab2e37d4accd4abca2798e7f3379de9b2022-12-22T03:37:04ZengBMCBMC Medical Research Methodology1471-22882022-06-0122111510.1186/s12874-022-01606-9Prior test experience confounds longitudinal tracking of adolescent cognitive and motor developmentEdith V. Sullivan0Wesley K. Thompson1Ty Brumback2Devin Prouty3Susan F. Tapert4Sandra A. Brown5Michael D. De Bellis6Kate B. Nooner7Fiona C. Baker8Ian M. Colrain9Duncan B. Clark10Bonnie J. Nagel11Kilian M. Pohl12Adolf Pfefferbaum13Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine (MC5723)Division of Biostatistics and Dept of Radiology, University of California, San DiegoDepartment of Psychological Sciences, Northern Kentucky UniversityCenter for Health Sciences, SRI InternationalDepartment of Psychiatry, University of California, San DiegoDepartment of Psychiatry, University of California, San DiegoDepartment of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Duke University School of MedicineDepartment of Psychology, University of North Carolina WilmingtonCenter for Health Sciences, SRI InternationalCenter for Health Sciences, SRI InternationalDepartment of Psychiatry, University of PittsburghDepartments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Sciences UniversityDepartment of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine (MC5723)Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine (MC5723)Abstract Background Accurate measurement of trajectories in longitudinal studies, considered the gold standard method for tracking functional growth during adolescence, decline in aging, and change after head injury, is subject to confounding by testing experience. Methods We measured change in cognitive and motor abilities over four test sessions (baseline and three annual assessments) in 154 male and 165 female participants (baseline age 12–21 years) from the National Consortium on Alcohol and NeuroDevelopment in Adolescence (NCANDA) study. At each of the four test sessions, these participants were given a test battery using computerized administration and traditional pencil and paper tests that yielded accuracy and speed measures for multiple component cognitive (Abstraction, Attention, Emotion, Episodic memory, Working memory, and General Ability) and motor (Ataxia and Speed) functions. The analysis aim was to dissociate neurodevelopment from testing experience by using an adaptation of the twice-minus-once tested method, which calculated the difference between longitudinal change (comprising developmental plus practice effects) and practice-free initial cross-sectional performance for each consecutive pairs of test sessions. Accordingly, the first set of analyses quantified the effects of learning (i.e., prior test experience) on accuracy and after speed domain scores. Then developmental effects were determined for each domain for accuracy and speed having removed the measured learning effects. Results The greatest gains in performance occurred between the first and second sessions, especially in younger participants, regardless of sex, but practice gains continued to accrue thereafter for several functions. For all 8 accuracy composite scores, the developmental effect after accounting for learning was significant across age and was adequately described by linear fits. The learning-adjusted developmental effects for speed were adequately described by linear fits for Abstraction, Emotion, Episodic Memory, General Ability, and Motor scores, although a nonlinear fit was better for Attention, Working Memory, and Average Speed scores. Conclusion Thus, what appeared as accelerated cognitive and motor development was, in most cases, attributable to learning. Recognition of the substantial influence of prior testing experience is critical for accurate characterization of normal development and for developing norms for clinical neuropsychological investigations of conditions affecting the brain.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-022-01606-9LongitudinalPractice effectsDevelopmentCognitionMotor |
| spellingShingle | Edith V. Sullivan Wesley K. Thompson Ty Brumback Devin Prouty Susan F. Tapert Sandra A. Brown Michael D. De Bellis Kate B. Nooner Fiona C. Baker Ian M. Colrain Duncan B. Clark Bonnie J. Nagel Kilian M. Pohl Adolf Pfefferbaum Prior test experience confounds longitudinal tracking of adolescent cognitive and motor development BMC Medical Research Methodology Longitudinal Practice effects Development Cognition Motor |
| title | Prior test experience confounds longitudinal tracking of adolescent cognitive and motor development |
| title_full | Prior test experience confounds longitudinal tracking of adolescent cognitive and motor development |
| title_fullStr | Prior test experience confounds longitudinal tracking of adolescent cognitive and motor development |
| title_full_unstemmed | Prior test experience confounds longitudinal tracking of adolescent cognitive and motor development |
| title_short | Prior test experience confounds longitudinal tracking of adolescent cognitive and motor development |
| title_sort | prior test experience confounds longitudinal tracking of adolescent cognitive and motor development |
| topic | Longitudinal Practice effects Development Cognition Motor |
| url | https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-022-01606-9 |
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