LESS LiDAR: A Full-Waveform and Discrete-Return Multispectral LiDAR Simulator Based on Ray Tracing Algorithm
Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) is a widely used technology for the acquisition of three-dimensional (3D) information about a wide variety of physical objects and environments. However, before conducting a campaign, a test is typically conducted to assess the potential of the utilized algorithm...
| Main Authors: | , , , , , |
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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MDPI AG
2023-09-01
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| Series: | Remote Sensing |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/15/18/4529 |
| _version_ | 1827723795050266624 |
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| author | Yaotao Luo Donghui Xie Jianbo Qi Kun Zhou Guangjian Yan Xihan Mu |
| author_facet | Yaotao Luo Donghui Xie Jianbo Qi Kun Zhou Guangjian Yan Xihan Mu |
| author_sort | Yaotao Luo |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) is a widely used technology for the acquisition of three-dimensional (3D) information about a wide variety of physical objects and environments. However, before conducting a campaign, a test is typically conducted to assess the potential of the utilized algorithm for information retrieval. It might not be a real campaign but rather a simulation to save time and costs. Here, a multi-platform LiDAR simulation model considering the location, direction, and wavelength of each emitted laser pulse was developed based on the large-scale remote sensing (RS) data and image simulation framework (LESS) model, which is a 3D radiative transfer model for simulating passive optical remote sensing signals using the ray tracing algorithm. The LESS LiDAR simulator took footprint size, returned energy, multiple scattering, and multispectrum LiDAR into account. The waveform and point similarity were assessed with the LiDAR module of the discrete anisotropic radiative transfer (DART) model. Abstract and realistic scenes were designed to assess the simulated LiDAR waveforms and point clouds. A waveform comparison in the abstract scene with the DART LiDAR module showed that the relative error was lower than 1%. In the realistic scene, airborne and terrestrial laser scanning were simulated by LESS and DART LiDAR modules. Their coefficients of determination ranged from <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9108</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula> to <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9984</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>. Their mean was <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9698</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>. The number of discrete returns fitted well and the coefficient of determination was <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9986</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>. A terrestrial point cloud comparison in the realistic scene showed that the coefficient of determination between the two sets of data could reach <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9849</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>. The performance of the LESS LiDAR simulator was also compared with the DART LiDAR module and HELIOS++. The results showed that the LESS LiDAR simulator is over three times faster than the DART LiDAR module and HELIOS++ when simulating terrestrial point clouds in a realistic scene. The proposed LiDAR simulator offers two modes for simulating point clouds: single-ray and multi-ray modes. The findings demonstrate that utilizing a single-ray simulation approach can significantly reduce the simulation time, by over 28 times, without substantially affecting the overall point number or ground pointswhen compared to employing multiple rays for simulations. This new LESS model integrating a LiDAR simulator has great potential in terms of simultaneously simulating LiDAR data and optical images based on the same 3D scene and parameters. As a proof of concept, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) results from multispectral images and the vertical profiles from multispectral LiDAR waveforms were simulated and analyzed. The results showed that the proposed LESS LiDAR simulator can fulfill its design goals. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-10T22:05:47Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-c8afb18827b1440d966dd0c53ba4d1cc |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2072-4292 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-10T22:05:47Z |
| publishDate | 2023-09-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Remote Sensing |
| spelling | doaj.art-c8afb18827b1440d966dd0c53ba4d1cc2023-11-19T12:48:59ZengMDPI AGRemote Sensing2072-42922023-09-011518452910.3390/rs15184529LESS LiDAR: A Full-Waveform and Discrete-Return Multispectral LiDAR Simulator Based on Ray Tracing AlgorithmYaotao Luo0Donghui Xie1Jianbo Qi2Kun Zhou3Guangjian Yan4Xihan Mu5State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, ChinaState Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, ChinaState Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, ChinaState Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, ChinaState Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, ChinaState Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, ChinaLight detection and ranging (LiDAR) is a widely used technology for the acquisition of three-dimensional (3D) information about a wide variety of physical objects and environments. However, before conducting a campaign, a test is typically conducted to assess the potential of the utilized algorithm for information retrieval. It might not be a real campaign but rather a simulation to save time and costs. Here, a multi-platform LiDAR simulation model considering the location, direction, and wavelength of each emitted laser pulse was developed based on the large-scale remote sensing (RS) data and image simulation framework (LESS) model, which is a 3D radiative transfer model for simulating passive optical remote sensing signals using the ray tracing algorithm. The LESS LiDAR simulator took footprint size, returned energy, multiple scattering, and multispectrum LiDAR into account. The waveform and point similarity were assessed with the LiDAR module of the discrete anisotropic radiative transfer (DART) model. Abstract and realistic scenes were designed to assess the simulated LiDAR waveforms and point clouds. A waveform comparison in the abstract scene with the DART LiDAR module showed that the relative error was lower than 1%. In the realistic scene, airborne and terrestrial laser scanning were simulated by LESS and DART LiDAR modules. Their coefficients of determination ranged from <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9108</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula> to <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9984</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>. Their mean was <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9698</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>. The number of discrete returns fitted well and the coefficient of determination was <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9986</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>. A terrestrial point cloud comparison in the realistic scene showed that the coefficient of determination between the two sets of data could reach <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mn>0.9849</mn></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>. The performance of the LESS LiDAR simulator was also compared with the DART LiDAR module and HELIOS++. The results showed that the LESS LiDAR simulator is over three times faster than the DART LiDAR module and HELIOS++ when simulating terrestrial point clouds in a realistic scene. The proposed LiDAR simulator offers two modes for simulating point clouds: single-ray and multi-ray modes. The findings demonstrate that utilizing a single-ray simulation approach can significantly reduce the simulation time, by over 28 times, without substantially affecting the overall point number or ground pointswhen compared to employing multiple rays for simulations. This new LESS model integrating a LiDAR simulator has great potential in terms of simultaneously simulating LiDAR data and optical images based on the same 3D scene and parameters. As a proof of concept, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) results from multispectral images and the vertical profiles from multispectral LiDAR waveforms were simulated and analyzed. The results showed that the proposed LESS LiDAR simulator can fulfill its design goals.https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/15/18/4529radiative transferray tracingLiDARLESSDART |
| spellingShingle | Yaotao Luo Donghui Xie Jianbo Qi Kun Zhou Guangjian Yan Xihan Mu LESS LiDAR: A Full-Waveform and Discrete-Return Multispectral LiDAR Simulator Based on Ray Tracing Algorithm Remote Sensing radiative transfer ray tracing LiDAR LESS DART |
| title | LESS LiDAR: A Full-Waveform and Discrete-Return Multispectral LiDAR Simulator Based on Ray Tracing Algorithm |
| title_full | LESS LiDAR: A Full-Waveform and Discrete-Return Multispectral LiDAR Simulator Based on Ray Tracing Algorithm |
| title_fullStr | LESS LiDAR: A Full-Waveform and Discrete-Return Multispectral LiDAR Simulator Based on Ray Tracing Algorithm |
| title_full_unstemmed | LESS LiDAR: A Full-Waveform and Discrete-Return Multispectral LiDAR Simulator Based on Ray Tracing Algorithm |
| title_short | LESS LiDAR: A Full-Waveform and Discrete-Return Multispectral LiDAR Simulator Based on Ray Tracing Algorithm |
| title_sort | less lidar a full waveform and discrete return multispectral lidar simulator based on ray tracing algorithm |
| topic | radiative transfer ray tracing LiDAR LESS DART |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/15/18/4529 |
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