Water quality and hydrochemical assessments of thermal springs, Gandaki Province, Nepal
Thermal springs are the sites where the water temperature lies above ambient temperature. They are widely used for power generation, hot water spas, balneotherapy, agriculture, laundering, and aquaculture. In Nepal, many thermal springs are reported but scientific understanding on water quality and...
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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Elsevier
2023-06-01
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| Series: | Heliyon |
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| Online Access: | http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844023045619 |
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| author | Baburam Chalise Prem Paudyal Buddha Bahadur Kunwar Kiran Bishwakarma Bina Thapa Ramesh Raj Pant Bhanu Bhakta Neupane |
| author_facet | Baburam Chalise Prem Paudyal Buddha Bahadur Kunwar Kiran Bishwakarma Bina Thapa Ramesh Raj Pant Bhanu Bhakta Neupane |
| author_sort | Baburam Chalise |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Thermal springs are the sites where the water temperature lies above ambient temperature. They are widely used for power generation, hot water spas, balneotherapy, agriculture, laundering, and aquaculture. In Nepal, many thermal springs are reported but scientific understanding on water quality and hydrogeochemistry of the springs is very limited. In this study, a total of 28 physico-chemical parameters were measured in water samples collected from 12 thermal springs from Gandaki Province, Nepal. Correlation matrix and multivariate statistical analysis such as principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis were used to understand the water quality and hydrogeochemistry of the hot water springs. The pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity in the hot water springs ranged from 7.3 to 8.8, 31.6–64.3 °C, 206–16270 μS/cm, 115–6637 mg/L, and 0.21–63.7 NTU; respectively. The dominance order of major anions and cations were: Cl− > HCO3− > SO42− > NO3− > F− and Na+ > Ca2+ > K+ > Mg2+; respectively. Comparison of the water quality parameters with the WHO and National Water Quality Standards suggested that the majority of the parameters were within the safe limit. Out of 9 heavy metals and trace elements analyzed Zn2+, Ni2+, Cr3+, Cd+2, Hg (total), and Pb2+ were found below the safe limit but Fe (total), As (total) and Cu (total) were found higher than the WHO safe limit in total of 3, 5 and 1 sampling sites; respectively. The water quality index (WQI), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), and magnesium hazard (MH) ratio in the hot water springs ranged from 40.9 to 573, 2.2–49.3, 7.1–70.8; respectively. The result of PCA analysis showed that four principal components are required to explain hydrogeochemistry. Cluster analysis suggested that the sampling sites can be grouped into three distinct clusters based on total dissolved solids. Interestingly, the classification of hydrochemical facies using a Piper diagram suggested that 7 out of 12 thermal springs have Na–Cl type water. Finally, a perspective on the suitability of the hot springs for hot water spas and balneotherapy and policy recommendation is provided. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-13T04:27:21Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-d2ca78f502a849ce9ed2ef87ecf5d696 |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2405-8440 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-13T04:27:21Z |
| publishDate | 2023-06-01 |
| publisher | Elsevier |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Heliyon |
| spelling | doaj.art-d2ca78f502a849ce9ed2ef87ecf5d6962023-06-20T04:20:11ZengElsevierHeliyon2405-84402023-06-0196e17353Water quality and hydrochemical assessments of thermal springs, Gandaki Province, NepalBaburam Chalise0Prem Paudyal1Buddha Bahadur Kunwar2Kiran Bishwakarma3Bina Thapa4Ramesh Raj Pant5Bhanu Bhakta Neupane6Central Department of Chemistry, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, 44613, NepalWater-Waste Water Quality Assurance Division, Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited, Kathmandu, 44600, NepalElemental Analysis Lab, Department of Food Technology and Quality Control, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, 44600, NepalInstitute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, ChinaCentral Department of Environmental Science, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, 44613, NepalCentral Department of Environmental Science, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, 44613, Nepal; Corresponding author.Central Department of Chemistry, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, 44613, Nepal; Corresponding author.Thermal springs are the sites where the water temperature lies above ambient temperature. They are widely used for power generation, hot water spas, balneotherapy, agriculture, laundering, and aquaculture. In Nepal, many thermal springs are reported but scientific understanding on water quality and hydrogeochemistry of the springs is very limited. In this study, a total of 28 physico-chemical parameters were measured in water samples collected from 12 thermal springs from Gandaki Province, Nepal. Correlation matrix and multivariate statistical analysis such as principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis were used to understand the water quality and hydrogeochemistry of the hot water springs. The pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity in the hot water springs ranged from 7.3 to 8.8, 31.6–64.3 °C, 206–16270 μS/cm, 115–6637 mg/L, and 0.21–63.7 NTU; respectively. The dominance order of major anions and cations were: Cl− > HCO3− > SO42− > NO3− > F− and Na+ > Ca2+ > K+ > Mg2+; respectively. Comparison of the water quality parameters with the WHO and National Water Quality Standards suggested that the majority of the parameters were within the safe limit. Out of 9 heavy metals and trace elements analyzed Zn2+, Ni2+, Cr3+, Cd+2, Hg (total), and Pb2+ were found below the safe limit but Fe (total), As (total) and Cu (total) were found higher than the WHO safe limit in total of 3, 5 and 1 sampling sites; respectively. The water quality index (WQI), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), and magnesium hazard (MH) ratio in the hot water springs ranged from 40.9 to 573, 2.2–49.3, 7.1–70.8; respectively. The result of PCA analysis showed that four principal components are required to explain hydrogeochemistry. Cluster analysis suggested that the sampling sites can be grouped into three distinct clusters based on total dissolved solids. Interestingly, the classification of hydrochemical facies using a Piper diagram suggested that 7 out of 12 thermal springs have Na–Cl type water. Finally, a perspective on the suitability of the hot springs for hot water spas and balneotherapy and policy recommendation is provided.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844023045619HydrogeochemistryHot springsWater qualityHeavy metalsMultivariate analysis |
| spellingShingle | Baburam Chalise Prem Paudyal Buddha Bahadur Kunwar Kiran Bishwakarma Bina Thapa Ramesh Raj Pant Bhanu Bhakta Neupane Water quality and hydrochemical assessments of thermal springs, Gandaki Province, Nepal Heliyon Hydrogeochemistry Hot springs Water quality Heavy metals Multivariate analysis |
| title | Water quality and hydrochemical assessments of thermal springs, Gandaki Province, Nepal |
| title_full | Water quality and hydrochemical assessments of thermal springs, Gandaki Province, Nepal |
| title_fullStr | Water quality and hydrochemical assessments of thermal springs, Gandaki Province, Nepal |
| title_full_unstemmed | Water quality and hydrochemical assessments of thermal springs, Gandaki Province, Nepal |
| title_short | Water quality and hydrochemical assessments of thermal springs, Gandaki Province, Nepal |
| title_sort | water quality and hydrochemical assessments of thermal springs gandaki province nepal |
| topic | Hydrogeochemistry Hot springs Water quality Heavy metals Multivariate analysis |
| url | http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844023045619 |
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