| Summary: | Questions and concerns regarding the efficacy and immunogenicity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines have plagued scientists since the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine was introduced in late 2020. As a result, decisions about vaccine boosters based on breakthrough infection rates and the decline of antibody titers have commanded worldwide attention and research. COVID-19 patients have displayed continued severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-spike-protein-specific antibodies and neutralizing antibodies in longitudinal studies; in addition, cytokine activation has been detected at early steps following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Epitopes that are highly reactive and can mediate long-term antibody responses have been identified at the spike and ORF1ab proteins. The N-terminal domain of the S1 and S2 subunits is the location of important SARS-CoV-2 spike protein epitopes. High sequence identity between earlier and newer variants of SARS-CoV-2 and different degrees of sequence homology among endemic human coronaviruses have been observed. Understanding the extent and duration of protective immunity is consequential for determining the course of the COVID-19 pandemic. Further knowledge of memory responses to different variants of SARS-CoV-2 is needed to improve the design of the vaccine.
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