Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation
The nutritional content of milk from free-living Asian elephants has not previously been reported, despite being vital for better management of captive populations. This study analyzed both milk composition and consumed plant species of Asian elephants managed in their natural environment in Myanmar...
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MDPI AG
2020-04-01
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| Series: | Animals |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/4/725 |
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| author | Ellen S. Dierenfeld Yadana A. M. Han Khyne U. Mar Aung Aung Aung Thura Soe Virpi Lummaa Mirkka Lahdenperä |
| author_facet | Ellen S. Dierenfeld Yadana A. M. Han Khyne U. Mar Aung Aung Aung Thura Soe Virpi Lummaa Mirkka Lahdenperä |
| author_sort | Ellen S. Dierenfeld |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | The nutritional content of milk from free-living Asian elephants has not previously been reported, despite being vital for better management of captive populations. This study analyzed both milk composition and consumed plant species of Asian elephants managed in their natural environment in Myanmar. Longitudinal samples (<i>n</i> = 36) were obtained during both the wet and the dry season from six mature females in mid to late lactation in 2016 and 2017. Milk composition averaged 82.44% water, with 17.56% total solids containing 5.23% protein, 15.10% fat, 0.87% ash, and 0.18 µg/mL vitamin E. Solids and protein increased with lactation month. Total protein in milk was higher during the wet vs. the dry season. Observed factors linked with maternal (age, parity, size and origin) and calf traits (sex) had significant associations with milk nutrient levels. Primary forages consumed contained moderate protein and fiber. Higher dietary protein during the wet season (11–25%) compared to the dry season (6–19%) may be linked with increased milk protein observed. Our results call for further field studies of milk and diet composition, over entire seasons/lactation periods, and across maternal and calf traits, to improve feeding management, with an overall goal of maximized health and survival. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-10T20:18:48Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-dd2bdbc9b6e546cabae2a6826247d06c |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2076-2615 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-10T20:18:48Z |
| publishDate | 2020-04-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Animals |
| spelling | doaj.art-dd2bdbc9b6e546cabae2a6826247d06c2023-11-19T22:23:44ZengMDPI AGAnimals2076-26152020-04-0110472510.3390/ani10040725Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late LactationEllen S. Dierenfeld0Yadana A. M. Han1Khyne U. Mar2Aung Aung3Aung Thura Soe4Virpi Lummaa5Mirkka Lahdenperä6Ellen S. Dierenfeld, LLC, St. Louis, MO 63128, USADepartment of Medical Research (Pyin-Oo-Lwin Branch), Pyin-Oo-Lwin 05081, MyanmarVeterinarians International, One Penn Plaza, Suite 6337, New York, NY 10119, USADepartment of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin 05282, MyanmarExtraction Department, Magway Region, Myanma Timber Enterprise, Magwe 0411, MyanmarDepartment of Biology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, FinlandDepartment of Public Health, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, 20520 Turku, FinlandThe nutritional content of milk from free-living Asian elephants has not previously been reported, despite being vital for better management of captive populations. This study analyzed both milk composition and consumed plant species of Asian elephants managed in their natural environment in Myanmar. Longitudinal samples (<i>n</i> = 36) were obtained during both the wet and the dry season from six mature females in mid to late lactation in 2016 and 2017. Milk composition averaged 82.44% water, with 17.56% total solids containing 5.23% protein, 15.10% fat, 0.87% ash, and 0.18 µg/mL vitamin E. Solids and protein increased with lactation month. Total protein in milk was higher during the wet vs. the dry season. Observed factors linked with maternal (age, parity, size and origin) and calf traits (sex) had significant associations with milk nutrient levels. Primary forages consumed contained moderate protein and fiber. Higher dietary protein during the wet season (11–25%) compared to the dry season (6–19%) may be linked with increased milk protein observed. Our results call for further field studies of milk and diet composition, over entire seasons/lactation periods, and across maternal and calf traits, to improve feeding management, with an overall goal of maximized health and survival.https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/4/725elephantlactationmilk compositionnutritionpachyderm |
| spellingShingle | Ellen S. Dierenfeld Yadana A. M. Han Khyne U. Mar Aung Aung Aung Thura Soe Virpi Lummaa Mirkka Lahdenperä Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation Animals elephant lactation milk composition nutrition pachyderm |
| title | Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation |
| title_full | Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation |
| title_fullStr | Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation |
| title_full_unstemmed | Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation |
| title_short | Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation |
| title_sort | milk composition of asian elephants i elephas maximus i in a natural environment in myanmar during late lactation |
| topic | elephant lactation milk composition nutrition pachyderm |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/4/725 |
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