Microbial and Host Metabolites at the Backstage of Fever: Current Knowledge about the Co-Ordinate Action of Receptors and Molecules Underlying Pathophysiology and Clinical Implications
Fever represents an elevation of body temperature, that exerts a protective effect against pathogens. Innate immune cells and neurons are implicated in the regulation of body temperature. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, i.e., lipopolysaccharides from Gram-negative bacteria and peptidoglycan...
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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MDPI AG
2023-03-01
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| Series: | Metabolites |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2218-1989/13/3/461 |
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| author | Luigi Santacroce Marica Colella Ioannis Alexandros Charitos Marina Di Domenico Raffaele Palmirotta Emilio Jirillo |
| author_facet | Luigi Santacroce Marica Colella Ioannis Alexandros Charitos Marina Di Domenico Raffaele Palmirotta Emilio Jirillo |
| author_sort | Luigi Santacroce |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Fever represents an elevation of body temperature, that exerts a protective effect against pathogens. Innate immune cells and neurons are implicated in the regulation of body temperature. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, i.e., lipopolysaccharides from Gram-negative bacteria and peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid from Gram-positive bacteria are exogenous pyrogens, that bind to Toll-like receptors on immune and non-immune cells. The subsequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines [interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6 and Tumor necrosis factor-alpha] and their passage through the brain trigger the febrile response. In fact, neurons of the pre-optic area produce prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), that, in turn, bind to the PGE2 receptors; thus, generating fever. Apart from classical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, i.e., aspirin and acetaminophen, various botanicals are currently used as antipyretic agents and, therefore, their mechanisms of action will be elucidated. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-11T06:11:46Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-e2ef46c1a8544d2fb3215fa69b244ff7 |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2218-1989 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-11T06:11:46Z |
| publishDate | 2023-03-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Metabolites |
| spelling | doaj.art-e2ef46c1a8544d2fb3215fa69b244ff72023-11-17T12:37:48ZengMDPI AGMetabolites2218-19892023-03-0113346110.3390/metabo13030461Microbial and Host Metabolites at the Backstage of Fever: Current Knowledge about the Co-Ordinate Action of Receptors and Molecules Underlying Pathophysiology and Clinical ImplicationsLuigi Santacroce0Marica Colella1Ioannis Alexandros Charitos2Marina Di Domenico3Raffaele Palmirotta4Emilio Jirillo5Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari ‘Aldo Moro’, 70124 Bari, ItalyInterdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari ‘Aldo Moro’, 70124 Bari, ItalyCEDICLO—Interdepartmental Research Center for Pre-Latin, Latin and Oriental Rights and Culture Studies, University of Bari, 70121 Bari, ItalyDepartment of Precision Medicine, University of Campania ‘Luigi Vanvitelli’, 80138 Naples, ItalyInterdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari ‘Aldo Moro’, 70124 Bari, ItalyInterdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari ‘Aldo Moro’, 70124 Bari, ItalyFever represents an elevation of body temperature, that exerts a protective effect against pathogens. Innate immune cells and neurons are implicated in the regulation of body temperature. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, i.e., lipopolysaccharides from Gram-negative bacteria and peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid from Gram-positive bacteria are exogenous pyrogens, that bind to Toll-like receptors on immune and non-immune cells. The subsequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines [interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6 and Tumor necrosis factor-alpha] and their passage through the brain trigger the febrile response. In fact, neurons of the pre-optic area produce prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), that, in turn, bind to the PGE2 receptors; thus, generating fever. Apart from classical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, i.e., aspirin and acetaminophen, various botanicals are currently used as antipyretic agents and, therefore, their mechanisms of action will be elucidated.https://www.mdpi.com/2218-1989/13/3/461microbesmicrobial antigenslipopolysaccharidefeverantipyretic agentsinterleukins |
| spellingShingle | Luigi Santacroce Marica Colella Ioannis Alexandros Charitos Marina Di Domenico Raffaele Palmirotta Emilio Jirillo Microbial and Host Metabolites at the Backstage of Fever: Current Knowledge about the Co-Ordinate Action of Receptors and Molecules Underlying Pathophysiology and Clinical Implications Metabolites microbes microbial antigens lipopolysaccharide fever antipyretic agents interleukins |
| title | Microbial and Host Metabolites at the Backstage of Fever: Current Knowledge about the Co-Ordinate Action of Receptors and Molecules Underlying Pathophysiology and Clinical Implications |
| title_full | Microbial and Host Metabolites at the Backstage of Fever: Current Knowledge about the Co-Ordinate Action of Receptors and Molecules Underlying Pathophysiology and Clinical Implications |
| title_fullStr | Microbial and Host Metabolites at the Backstage of Fever: Current Knowledge about the Co-Ordinate Action of Receptors and Molecules Underlying Pathophysiology and Clinical Implications |
| title_full_unstemmed | Microbial and Host Metabolites at the Backstage of Fever: Current Knowledge about the Co-Ordinate Action of Receptors and Molecules Underlying Pathophysiology and Clinical Implications |
| title_short | Microbial and Host Metabolites at the Backstage of Fever: Current Knowledge about the Co-Ordinate Action of Receptors and Molecules Underlying Pathophysiology and Clinical Implications |
| title_sort | microbial and host metabolites at the backstage of fever current knowledge about the co ordinate action of receptors and molecules underlying pathophysiology and clinical implications |
| topic | microbes microbial antigens lipopolysaccharide fever antipyretic agents interleukins |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2218-1989/13/3/461 |
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