Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections
Salmonella are considered a part of the normal reptile gut microbiota, but have also been associated with disease in reptiles. Reptile-associated salmonellosis (RAS) can pose a serious health threat to humans, especially children, and an estimated 6% of human sporadic salmonellosis cases have been a...
| Main Authors: | , , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Frontiers Media S.A.
2023-09-01
|
| Series: | Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcell.2023.1251036/full |
| _version_ | 1827806008269864960 |
|---|---|
| author | Michael Pees Maria Brockmann Natalie Steiner Rachel E. Marschang |
| author_facet | Michael Pees Maria Brockmann Natalie Steiner Rachel E. Marschang |
| author_sort | Michael Pees |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Salmonella are considered a part of the normal reptile gut microbiota, but have also been associated with disease in reptiles. Reptile-associated salmonellosis (RAS) can pose a serious health threat to humans, especially children, and an estimated 6% of human sporadic salmonellosis cases have been attributed to direct or indirect contact with reptiles, although the exact number is not known. Two literature searches were conducted for this review. The first evaluated reports of the prevalence of Salmonella in the intestinal tracts of healthy reptiles. Salmonella were most commonly detected in snakes (56.0% overall), followed by lizards (36.9%) and tortoises (34.2%), with lower detection rates reported for turtles (18.6%) and crocodilians (9%). Reptiles in captivity were significantly more likely to shed Salmonella than those sampled in the wild. The majority of Salmonella strains described in reptiles belonged to subspecies I (70.3%), followed by subspecies IIIb (29.7%) and subspecies II (19.6%). The second literature search focused on reports of RAS, revealing that the highest number of cases was associated with contact with turtles (35.3%), followed by lizards (27.1%) and snakes (20.0%). Reptiles associated with RAS therefore did not directly reflect prevalence of Salmonella reported in healthy representatives of a given reptile group. Clinical symptoms associated with RAS predominantly involved the gastrointestinal tract, but also included fever, central nervous symptoms, problems with circulation, respiratory symptoms and others. Disease caused by Salmonella in reptiles appears to be dependent on additional factors, including stress, inadequate husbandry and hygiene, and other infectious agents. While it has been suggested that reptile serovars may cause more severe disease than human-derived strains, and some data is available on invasiveness of individual strains in cell culture, limited information is available on potential mechanisms influencing invasiveness and immune evasion in reptiles and in RAS. Strategies to mitigate the spread of Salmonella through reptiles and to reduce RAS focus mostly on education and hygiene, and have often been met with some success, but additional efforts are needed. Many aspects regarding Salmonella in reptiles remain poorly understood, including the mechanisms by which Salmonella persist in reptile hosts without causing disease. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-11T21:34:21Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-ed8d51e7590a48f3ac57e8f4311c1582 |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2296-634X |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-11T21:34:21Z |
| publishDate | 2023-09-01 |
| publisher | Frontiers Media S.A. |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology |
| spelling | doaj.art-ed8d51e7590a48f3ac57e8f4311c15822023-09-27T04:44:33ZengFrontiers Media S.A.Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology2296-634X2023-09-011110.3389/fcell.2023.12510361251036Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infectionsMichael Pees0Maria Brockmann1Natalie Steiner2Rachel E. Marschang3Department of Small Mammal, Reptile and Avian Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, GermanyLaboklin GmbH and Co., KG, Bad Kissingen, GermanyDepartment of Small Mammal, Reptile and Avian Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, GermanyLaboklin GmbH and Co., KG, Bad Kissingen, GermanySalmonella are considered a part of the normal reptile gut microbiota, but have also been associated with disease in reptiles. Reptile-associated salmonellosis (RAS) can pose a serious health threat to humans, especially children, and an estimated 6% of human sporadic salmonellosis cases have been attributed to direct or indirect contact with reptiles, although the exact number is not known. Two literature searches were conducted for this review. The first evaluated reports of the prevalence of Salmonella in the intestinal tracts of healthy reptiles. Salmonella were most commonly detected in snakes (56.0% overall), followed by lizards (36.9%) and tortoises (34.2%), with lower detection rates reported for turtles (18.6%) and crocodilians (9%). Reptiles in captivity were significantly more likely to shed Salmonella than those sampled in the wild. The majority of Salmonella strains described in reptiles belonged to subspecies I (70.3%), followed by subspecies IIIb (29.7%) and subspecies II (19.6%). The second literature search focused on reports of RAS, revealing that the highest number of cases was associated with contact with turtles (35.3%), followed by lizards (27.1%) and snakes (20.0%). Reptiles associated with RAS therefore did not directly reflect prevalence of Salmonella reported in healthy representatives of a given reptile group. Clinical symptoms associated with RAS predominantly involved the gastrointestinal tract, but also included fever, central nervous symptoms, problems with circulation, respiratory symptoms and others. Disease caused by Salmonella in reptiles appears to be dependent on additional factors, including stress, inadequate husbandry and hygiene, and other infectious agents. While it has been suggested that reptile serovars may cause more severe disease than human-derived strains, and some data is available on invasiveness of individual strains in cell culture, limited information is available on potential mechanisms influencing invasiveness and immune evasion in reptiles and in RAS. Strategies to mitigate the spread of Salmonella through reptiles and to reduce RAS focus mostly on education and hygiene, and have often been met with some success, but additional efforts are needed. Many aspects regarding Salmonella in reptiles remain poorly understood, including the mechanisms by which Salmonella persist in reptile hosts without causing disease.https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcell.2023.1251036/fullSalmonellareptilezoonosisprevalenceinteractions |
| spellingShingle | Michael Pees Maria Brockmann Natalie Steiner Rachel E. Marschang Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology Salmonella reptile zoonosis prevalence interactions |
| title | Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections |
| title_full | Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections |
| title_fullStr | Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections |
| title_full_unstemmed | Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections |
| title_short | Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections |
| title_sort | salmonella in reptiles a review of occurrence interactions shedding and risk factors for human infections |
| topic | Salmonella reptile zoonosis prevalence interactions |
| url | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcell.2023.1251036/full |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT michaelpees salmonellainreptilesareviewofoccurrenceinteractionssheddingandriskfactorsforhumaninfections AT mariabrockmann salmonellainreptilesareviewofoccurrenceinteractionssheddingandriskfactorsforhumaninfections AT nataliesteiner salmonellainreptilesareviewofoccurrenceinteractionssheddingandriskfactorsforhumaninfections AT rachelemarschang salmonellainreptilesareviewofoccurrenceinteractionssheddingandriskfactorsforhumaninfections |