| Summary: | Considerations of the emergence of symbolic and spiritual culture have understandably often focused principally on the rich record of representational and abstract imagery of the Upper Palaeolithic of Europe. There is, however, at least one other medium of expression relevant to such considerations and which can leave an archaeological trace – musical activity. Although there are some notable discussions of evidence for musical activity in the Upper Palaeolithic (many of which are cited in this chapter), discussions of music in the context of the early manifestation of symbolic and religious activity are surprisingly rare, with early musical artefacts and activities receiving a brief mention in that context, if they are mentioned at all (a particularly notable exception is provided by d’Errico et al. 2003). The archaeological record of reputed sound-producers from the Upper Palaeolithic is, in fact, a relatively rich one, including over 120 objects which have been, at various times (admittedly with variable likelihood), interpreted as flutes and more than ninety objects interpreted (again, with variable likelihood) as whistles (see Morley 2003; also Morley 2005). There are also a number of other objects with sound-producing potential, interpreted as bullroarers (Dams 1985; Alebo 1986; Dauvois 1989, 1999; Scothern 1992) and rasps (Huyge 1990, 1991; Dauvois 1989, 1999). Finally the sound-producing potential of rocks and caves themselves also appears to have been exploited (Glory 1964, 1965; Dams 1984, 1985; Reznikoff and Dauvois 1988; Dauvois 1989, 1999). At present the oldest widely accepted musical instruments are two swan-bone pipes dated to around 36,800 +/- 1000 years BP, found in context with Aurignacian II split bone points at Geissenklosterle, Germany (Hahn and Munzel 1995; Turk and Kavur 1997; Richter et al. 2000), and a remarkable multipart pipe made from mammoth ivory from the same site, of around the same age (Conard et al. 2004).
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