| Summary: | Currently, the Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) is mainly an attractive area due
to its technological ability to gather valuable data from underwater environments such as
tsunami monitoring sensors, military tactical applications, and environmental monitoring.
However, UWSNs are suffering from limited energy, high packet loss, and the use of acoustic
communication which have very limited bandwidth and slow transmission. In UWSNs, the
energy consumption used is 125 times more during the forwarding of the packet data from
source to destination as compare to during receiving data. For this reason, many researchers
are keen to design an energy-efficient routing protocol to minimize the energy consumption
in UWSNs while at the same time provide adequate packet delivery ratio and less cumulative
delay. As such, the opportunistic routing (OR) is the most promising method to be used in
UWSNs due to its unique characteristics such as high path loss, dynamic topology, high energy
consumption, and high propagation delay. However, the OR algorithm had also suffered from
as higher traffic load for selection next forwarding nodes in the progression area, which
suppressed the redundant forwarding packet and caused communication void. There are three
new proposed algorithms introduced to address all three issues which resulted from using the
OR approach in UWSNs. Firstly, the higher traffic load for selection next forwarding nodes in
the problematic progression area problem was addressed by using the Opportunistic Routing
Density Based (ORDB) algorithm to minimize the traffic load by introducing a beaconless
routing to update the neighbor node information protocol. Secondly, the algorithm
Opportunistic Routing Density Rank Based (ORDRB) was developed to deal with redundant
packet forwarding by introducing a new method to reduce the redundant packet forwarding
while in dense or sparse conditions to improve the energy consumption effectively. Finally,
the algorithm Void Avoidance Opportunistic Routing Density Rank Based (ORDRB) was
developed to deal with the communication void by introducing a simple method to detect a
void node and avoid it during the forwarding process. Simulation results showed that ORDB
has improved the network performance in terms of energy tax average (25%, 40%), packet
delivery ratio (43%, 23%), and cumulative delay (67%, -42%) compared to DBR and
UWFlooding routing protocols. While for ORDRB, the network performance improved in
terms of energy tax average (0.9%, 53%, 62%), packet delivery ratio (100%, 83%, 58%) and
cumulative delay (-270%, -94%, 55%) compared to WDFAD-DBR, DBR and UWFlooding.
Lastly, for VAORDRB, the network performance improved in terms of energy tax average
(3%, 8%), packet delivery ratio (167%, 261%), and cumulative delay (68%, 57%) compared
to EVA-DBR and WDFAD-DBR. Based on the findings of this study, the protocol
VAORDRB is a suitable total solution to reduce the cumulative delay and increase the packet
delivery ratio in sparse and dense network deployment.
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