IgA Responses Following Recurrent Influenza Virus Vaccination by Rodrigo B. Abreu, Emily F. Clutter, Sara Attari, Giuseppe A. Sautto, Ted M. Ross, Ted M. Ross

“…However, continuous antigenic drift by circulating influenza viruses facilitates escape from pre-existing antibodies requiring frequent reformulation of the seasonal influenza vaccine. …”
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Isolation of a high affinity neutralizing monoclonal antibody against 2009 pandemic H1N1 virus that binds at the 'Sa' antigenic site. by Nachiket Shembekar, Vamsee V Aditya Mallajosyula, Arpita Mishra, Leena Yeolekar, Rajeev Dhere, Subhash Kapre, Raghavan Varadarajan, Satish Kumar Gupta

“…Influenza virus evades host immunity through antigenic drift and shift, and continues to circulate in the human population causing periodic outbreaks including the recent 2009 pandemic. …”
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Microevolution of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Viruses Isolated from Humans, Egypt, 2007–2011 by Mary Younan, Mee Kian Poh, Emad Elassal, Todd Davis, Pierre Rivailler, Amanda L. Balish, Natosha Simpson, Joyce Jones, Varough Deyde, Rosette Loughlin, Ije Perry, Larisa Gubareva, Maha A. ElBadry, Shaun Truelove, Anne M. Gaynor, Emad Mohareb, Magdy Amin, Claire Cornelius, Guillermo Pimentel, Kenneth Earhart, Amel Naguib, Ahmed S. Abdelghani, Samir Refaey, Alexander I. Klimov, Ruben O. Donis, Amr Kandeel

“…However, a comparison of representative subtype H5N1 viruses from 2011 with older subtype H5N1 viruses from Egypt revealed substantial antigenic drift.…”
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A computational framework for influenza antigenic cartography. by Zhipeng Cai, Tong Zhang, Xiu-Feng Wan

“…By applying our method in HI datasets containing H3N2 influenza A viruses isolated from 1968 to 2003, we identified eleven clusters of antigenic variants, representing all major antigenic drift events in these 36 years. Our results showed that both the completed HI matrix and the antigenic cartography obtained via MC-MDS are useful in identifying influenza antigenic variants and thus can be used to facilitate influenza vaccine strain selection. …”
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Influenza B virus neuraminidase: a potential target for next-generation vaccines? by Thi Hoai Thu Do, Adam K. Wheatley, Stephen J. Kent, Marios Koutsakos

“…ABSTRACTIntroduction Influenza B viruses (IBV) cause a significant health and economic burden annually. Due to lower antigenic drift rate, less extensive antigenic diversity, and lack of animal reservoirs, the development of highly effective universal vaccines against IBV might be in reach. …”
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Rapid evolution of pandemic noroviruses of the GII.4 lineage. by Rowena A Bull, John-Sebastian Eden, William D Rawlinson, Peter A White

“…Furthermore, the GII.4 lineage had on average a 1.7-fold higher rate of evolution within the capsid sequence and a greater number of non-synonymous changes compared to other NoVs, supporting the theory that it is undergoing antigenic drift at a faster rate. Interestingly, the non-synonymous mutations for all three NoV genotypes were localised to common structural residues in the capsid, indicating that these sites are likely to be under immune selection. …”
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Antigenic and Molecular Characterization of Avian Influenza A(H9N2) Viruses, Bangladesh by Karthik Shanmuganatham, Mohammed M. Feeroz, Lisa Jones-Engel, Gavin J.D. Smith, Mathieu Fourment, David Walker, Laura McClenaghan, S.M. Rabiul Alam, M. Kamrul Hasan, Patrick Seiler, John Franks, Angie Danner, Subrata Barman, Pamela McKenzie, Scott Krauss, Richard J. Webby, Robert G. Webster

“…Serologic analyses of subtype H9N2 viruses from chickens revealed antigenic conservation, whereas analyses of viruses from quail showed antigenic drift. Molecular analysis showed that multiple mammalian-specific mutations have become fixed in the subtype H9N2 viruses, including changes in the hemagglutinin, matrix, and polymerase proteins. …”
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Actividade gripal em Portugal no inverno de 2000/2001: análise antigénica e genética das estirpes de vírus influenza. by Pedro Pechirra, Helena Rebelo-de-Andrade, Raquel Guiomar, Carlos Ribeiro, Anabela Coelho, Sónia Pedro, Francisco George

“…The antigenic and genetic characterisation of the isolates allowed the confirmation of the similarity between these viral strains and the vaccine strains as well as the extent of the antigenic drift. Despite the antigenic similarity between the majority of influenza B isolates and the vaccine strains it's noticeable that the genetic characteristics showed an evolution directed towards the B/Sichuan/379/99 strain, which would later be incorporated in the 2001/2002 influenza vaccine. …”
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Progress towards the Development of a Universal Influenza Vaccine by Wen-Chien Wang, Ekramy E. Sayedahmed, Suryaprakash Sambhara, Suresh K. Mittal

“…Current seasonal influenza vaccines provide strain-specific protection and are less effective against mismatched strains. The rapid antigenic drift and shift in influenza viruses resulted in time-consuming surveillance and uncertainty in the vaccine protection efficacy. …”
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Exploring the molecular epidemiology and evolutionary dynamics of influenza A virus in Taiwan. by Jih-Hui Lin, Shu-Chun Chiu, Yung-Cheng Lin, Ju-Chien Cheng, Ho-Sheng Wu, Marco Salemi, Hsin-Fu Liu

“…The synchronized seasonal patterns and high genetic diversity of influenza A viruses observed in Taiwan make possible to capture the evolutionary dynamic and epidemiological rules governing antigenic drift and reassortment and may serve as a "warning" system that recapitulates the global epidemic.…”
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Protective efficacy of a universal influenza mRNA vaccine against the challenge of H1 and H5 influenza A viruses in mice by Yulei Li, Xi Wang, Xi Zeng, Wenbo Ren, Pu Liao, Baoli Zhu

“…Abstract Current influenza vaccines need to be updated annually owing to constant antigenic drift in the globular head of the viral surface hemagglutinin (HA) glycoprotein. …”
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Phylodynamic inference and model assessment with approximate bayesian computation: influenza as a case study. by Oliver Ratmann, Gé Donker, Adam Meijer, Christophe Fraser, Katia Koelle

“…The first model captures antigenic drift phenomenologically with continuously waning immunity, and the second epochal evolution model describes the replacement of major, relatively long-lived antigenic clusters. …”
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Serious acute respiratory syndrome: a case series in a municipality region of central Brazil by Cácia Régia de Paula, Eliane Lemes de Morais, Patrícia de Sá Barros, Ludmila Grego Maia, Bruno Bordin Pelazza, Guilherme Silva Mendonca, Marcos Lazaro Moreli

“… The influenza B virus is more stable than influenza A, with less antigenic drift and consequent immunologic stability, and does not undergo the process of antigenic shift, its participation in epidemics is minimal, being of lesser academic interest. …”
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Mini-HA Is Superior to Full Length Hemagglutinin Immunization in Inducing Stem-Specific Antibodies and Protection Against Group 1 Influenza Virus Challenges in Mice by Joan E. M. van der Lubbe, Johan W. A. Verspuij, Jeroen Huizingh, Sonja P. R. Schmit-Tillemans, Jeroen T. B. M. Tolboom, Liesbeth E. H. A. Dekking, Ted Kwaks, Börries Brandenburg, Wim Meijberg, Roland C. Zahn, Ramon Roozendaal, Harmjan Kuipers

“…Seasonal influenza vaccines are updated almost annually to match the antigenic drift in influenza hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein. …”
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Fatal cases of influenza a in childhood. by Benjamin F Johnson, Louise E Wilson, Joanna Ellis, Alex J Elliot, Wendy S Barclay, Richard G Pebody, Jim McMenamin, Douglas M Fleming, Maria C Zambon

“…Clinical incidences of influenza-like illness (ILI) in young age groups were shown to be highest only in the years when novel antigenic drift variants emerged. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: This work presents a rare insight into fatal influenza H3N2 in healthy children. …”
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Overview of Current Therapeutics and Novel Candidates Against Influenza, Respiratory Syncytial Virus, and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Infections by Mohammad Amin Behzadi, Victor H. Leyva-Grado

“…Influenza viruses have been affecting the human population for a long time now; however, their ability to rapidly evolve through antigenic drift and antigenic shift causes the emergence of new strains. …”
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Changes in the antigenic and genetic structure of influenza viruses: analysis of surveillance data of influenza A and B in Russia in 2006-2013 by Mikhail P. Grudinin, Maria M. Pisareva, Andrey B. Komissarov, Anna A. Kosheleva, Janna V. Buzitskaya, Marina A. Stukova, Alexandra V. Prokopetz, Daria M. Danilenko, Nadezhda I. Konovalova, Tamara G. Lobova, Anna A. Sominina, Oleg I. Kiselev

“…The goal of this research project was to study the natural variability of human influenza A and B viruses based on the analysis of the population structure of influenza viruses, circulating in Russia in 2006-2013, in order to determine the direction of their genetic and antigenic drift by comparison to the WHO reference strains. …”
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An Outbreak of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H7N7) in Australia and the Potential for Novel Influenza A Viruses to Emerge by Andrew T. Bisset, Gerard F. Hoyne

“…The avian HPAI H7N7 virus generally does not infect humans; however, evidence shows the ocular pathway presents a favourable tissue tropism for human infection. Through antigenic drift, mutations in the H7N7 viral genome may increase virulence and pathogenicity in humans. …”
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A nucleic-acid hydrolyzing single chain antibody confers resistance to DNA virus infection in hela cells and C57BL/6 mice. by Gunsup Lee, Jaelim Yu, Seungchan Cho, Sung-June Byun, Dae Hyun Kim, Taek-Kyun Lee, Myung-Hee Kwon, Sukchan Lee

“…Viral protein neutralizing antibodies have been developed but they are limited only to the targeted virus and are often susceptible to antigenic drift. Here, we present an alternative strategy for creating virus-resistant cells and animals by ectopic expression of a nucleic acid hydrolyzing catalytic 3D8 single chain variable fragment (scFv), which has both DNase and RNase activities. …”
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The beginning and ending of a respiratory viral pandemic‐lessons from the Spanish flu by Harald Brüssow

“…Until 1957, the H1N1 virus evolved by accumulation of mutations (‘antigenic drift’) and some intratypic reassortment. H1N1 viruses were then replaced by the pandemic H2N2 influenza virus from 1957, which was in 1968 replaced by the pandemic H3N2 influenza virus; both viruses were descendants from the Spanish flu agent but showed the exchange of entire gene segments (‘antigenic shift’). …”
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