Age Dependence and Isotype Specificity of Influenza Virus Hemagglutinin Stalk-Reactive Antibodies in Humans by Raffael Nachbagauer, Angela Choi, Ruvim Izikson, Manon M. Cox, Peter Palese, Florian Krammer

“…Seasonal vaccines offer protection but can be rendered less effective when the virus undergoes extensive antigenic drift. Antibodies that target the highly conserved hemagglutinin stalk can protect against drifted viruses, and vaccine constructs designed to induce such antibodies form the basis for a universal influenza virus vaccine approach. …”
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Use of Biolayer Interferometry to Identify Dominant Binding Epitopes of Influenza Hemagglutinin Protein of A(H1N1)pdm09 in the Antibody Response to 2010–2011 Influenza Seasonal Vac... by Zhu Guo, Xiuhua Lu, Paul J. Carney, Jessie Chang, Wen-pin Tzeng, Ian A. York, Min Z. Levine, James Stevens

“…As little as one amino acid substitution in the HA1 can result in an antigenic drift of influenza viruses, indicating the dominance of some epitopes in the binding of HA to polyclonal serum antibodies. …”
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Reduced neutralisation of the Delta (B.1.617.2) SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern following vaccination. by Chris Davis, Nicola Logan, Grace Tyson, Richard Orton, William T Harvey, Jonathan S Perkins, Guy Mollett, Rachel M Blacow, COVID-19 Genomics UK (COG-UK) Consortium, Thomas P Peacock, Wendy S Barclay, Peter Cherepanov, Massimo Palmarini, Pablo R Murcia, Arvind H Patel, David L Robertson, John Haughney, Emma C Thomson, Brian J Willett, COVID-19 DeplOyed VaccinE (DOVE) Cohort Study investigators

“…The accumulation of mutations in these VOCs, and others, demonstrate the quantifiable risk of antigenic drift and subsequent reduction in vaccine efficacy. …”
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Twindemic - An emerging concern in Pakistan by Sareema Eman Akhtar, Saad Shakil, Azhar Chachar

“…There is uncertainty regarding flu strains since it can undergo antigenic shifts and antigenic drift that can cause the evolution of new strains (2). …”
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Influenza a Neuraminidase-Based Bivalent mRNA Vaccine Induces Th1-Type Immune Response and Provides Protective Effects in Mice by Mingyang Li, Mengyuan Liu, Shaohui Song, Ruirui Zhao, Yun Xie, Jing Liu, Lilan Xu, Xuefeng Ma, Mingyu Song, Jian Zhou, Guoyang Liao

“…Vaccines are one of the most effective means of preventing influenza A, typically containing the hemagglutinin (HA) of the influenza A virus. However, antigenic drift and shift of the influenza A virus can lead to instability in vaccine efficacy. …”
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PROTECTIVE ACTIVITY OF NOVEL BENZIMIDAZOLE DERIVATIVES AT EXPERIMENTAL INFLUENZA INFECTION by V. V. Zarubaev, S. V. Vasilieva, Y. L. Esaulkova, A. V. Garshinina, V. M. Veprintseva, A. V. Galochkina, Y. S. Protsak, I. V. Teselkin, A. S. Morkovnik, L. N. Divaeva, I. N. Lavrentieva

“…Due to the segmental organization of the  genome and low accuracy of its replication, the influenza virus is  capable of escaping the host’s immune response (antigenic drift), as  well as the selection of drug-resistant variants. …”
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IMMUNE RESPONSE TO COVID-19 COMPARED TO THE IMMUNE RESPONSE TO SARS, MERS AND INFLUENZA by Velo Markovski

“…WHO has been successfully following the antigenic drift of influenza virus ever since 1952 (WHO’s Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS). …”
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The Chinese Hamster Ovary Cell-Based H9 HA Subunit Avian Influenza Vaccine Provides Complete Protection against the H9N2 Virus Challenge in Chickens by Shunfan Zhu, Zhenyu Nie, Ying Che, Jianhong Shu, Sufang Wu, Yulong He, Youqiang Wu, Hong Qian, Huapeng Feng, Qiang Zhang

“…However, due to the prompt antigenic drift and antigenic shift of influenza viruses, outbreaks of H9N2 viruses still continuously occur, so surveillance and vaccine updates for H9N2 subtype avian influenza viruses are particularly important. (2) Methods: In this study, we constructed a stable Chinese hamster ovary cell line (CHO) to express the H9 hemagglutinin (HA) protein of the major prevalent H9N2 strain A/chicken/Daye/DY0602/2017 with genetic engineering technology, and then a subunit H9 avian influenza vaccine was prepared using the purified HA protein with a water-in-oil adjuvant. (3) Results: The results showed that the HI antibodies significantly increased after vaccination with the H9 subunit vaccine in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chickens with a dose–dependent potency of the immunized HA protein, and the 50 μg or more per dose HA protein could provide complete protection against the H9N2 virus challenge. (4) Conclusions: These results indicate that the CHO expression system could be a platform used to develop the subunit vaccine against H9 influenza viruses in chickens.…”
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Influence of novel norovirus GII.4 variants on gastroenteritis outbreak dynamics in Alberta and the Northern Territories, Canada between 2000 and 2008. by Xiaoli L Pang, Jutta K Preiksaitis, Sallene Wong, Vincent Li, Bonita E Lee

“…The association between antigenic drift of GII.4 strains and epidemic norovirus outbreak activity could be due to changes in host immunity, viral receptor binding efficiency or virulence factors in the new variants. …”
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Salmonella-Delivered COBRA-HA1 Antigen Derived from H1N1 Hemagglutinin Sequences Elicits Broad-Spectrum Protection Against Influenza A Subtypes by Ram Prasad Aganja, Amal Senevirathne, Chandran Sivasankar, John Hwa Lee

“…A universal vaccine is in high demand to address the uncertainties of antigenic drift and the reduced effectiveness of current influenza vaccines. …”
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Assessing the effects of a two-amino acid flexibility in the Hemagglutinin 220-loop receptor-binding domain on the fitness of Influenza A(H9N2) viruses by Yixue Sun, Yulin Cong, Haiying Yu, Zhuang Ding, Yanlong Cong

“…The antigenic map based on the cross-hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers revealed that amino acid substitutions at positions 226 or 227 appear to be involved in antigenic drift, potentially resulting in the emergence of H9N2 immune evasion mutants. …”
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Identification of cellular microRNA miR-188-3p with broad-spectrum anti-influenza A virus activity by Huan Cui, Chunmao Zhang, Zongzheng Zhao, Cheng Zhang, Yingying Fu, Jiaming Li, Guanxi Chen, Mengxi Lai, Zhixiang Li, Shishan Dong, Ligong Chen, Zhaoyang Li, Chengyu Wang, Juxiang Liu, Yuwei Gao, Zhendong Guo

“…The current prophylaxis and therapeutic interventions for IAV requires frequent changes due to the continuous antigenic drift and antigenic shift of IAV. Emerging evidence indicates that the host microRNAs (miRNAs) play critical roles in intricate host-pathogen interaction networks. …”
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The variation of antigenic and histo-blood group binding sites synergistically drive the evolution among chronologically emerging GII.4 noroviruses by Xiaojing Hong, Liang Xue, Yingwen Cao, Ruiquan Xu, Jingmin Wang, Junshan Gao, Shuidi Miao, Yueting Jiang, Xiaoxia Kou

“…These synergistic forces constantly lead to antigenic drift and changes in receptor binding, resulting in continuous emergence of new variant strains and sustained prevalence.…”
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A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies by Raj K. Singh, Kuldeep Dhama, Kumaragurubaran Karthik, Rekha Khandia, Ashok Munjal, Sandip K. Khurana, Sandip Chakraborty, Yashpal S. Malik, Nitin Virmani, Rajendra Singh, Bhupendra N. Tripathi, Muhammad Munir, Johannes H. van der Kolk

“…Recurrent vaccination failures against this virus due to antigenic drift and shift have been disappointing, however better understanding of the virus pathogenesis would make it easier to design effective vaccines predominantly targeting the conserved epitopes (HA glycoprotein). …”
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Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness in Preventing Laboratory-Confirmed Influenza Cases and Hospitalizations in Navarre, Spain, 2022–2023 by Iván Martínez-Baz, Miguel Fernández-Huerta, Ana Navascués, Francisco Pozo, Camino Trobajo-Sanmartín, Itziar Casado, Aitziber Echeverria, Carmen Ezpeleta, Jesús Castilla

“…The null IVE against A(H1N1) was consistent with the observed antigenic drift and supports the new composition of the 2023–2024 influenza vaccine.…”
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In silico analysis and molecular characterization of Influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 virus circulating and causing major outbreaks in central India, 2009-2019 by Arshi Siddiqui, Rashmi Chowdhary, Harjeet Singh Maan, Sudhir Kumar Goel, Nidhi Tripathi, Anil Prakash

“…Materials and Methods: We have investigated the antigenic drift analysis of 96 isolates’ hemagglutinin (HA) gene sequences (59 central Indian and 37 local Indian and 28 global reference HA gene sequences) of Influenza A/H1N1pdm09 viruses from 2009 to 2019. …”
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Antigenic and molecular characterization of low pathogenic avian influenza A(H9N2) viruses in sub-Saharan Africa from 2017 through 2019 by Maxime Fusade-Boyer, Fidélia Djegui, Komla Batawui, Denis K. Byuragaba, Jeremy C. Jones, Fred Wabwire-Mangeni, Bernard Erima, Gladys Atim, Qouilazoni A. Ukuli, Titus Tugume, Koffi Dogno, Komlan Adjabli, Mvibudulu Nzuzi, Rachidatou Adjin, Trushar Jeevan, Adam Rubrum, Wolali Go-Maro, Ghazi Kayali, Pamela McKenzie, Richard J. Webby, Mariette F. Ducatez

“…Viruses from Benin exhibited decreased cross-reactivity with those from Togo and Uganda, suggesting antigenic drift associated with reduced replication in Calu-3 cells. …”
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Clinical and molecular epidemiology of influenza viruses from Romanian patients hospitalized during the 2019/20 season by Victor Daniel Miron, Leontina Bănică, Oana Săndulescu, Simona Paraschiv, Marius Surleac, Dragoș Florea, Ovidiu Vlaicu, Petre Milu, Anca Streinu-Cercel, Anuta Bilașco, Dan Oțelea, Daniela Pițigoi, Adrian Streinu-Cercel, Anca Cristina Drăgănescu

“…Two main mechanisms contribute to the continuous evolution of influenza viruses: accumulation of mutations in the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes (antigenic drift) and genetic re-assortments (antigenic shift). …”
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Characterization of Immune Response towards Generation of Universal Anti-HA-Stalk Antibodies after Immunization of Broiler Hens with Triple H5N1/NA-HA-M1 VLPs by Beata Gromadzka, Milena Chraniuk, Lilit Hovhannisyan, Karolina Uranowska, Bogusław Szewczyk, Magdalena Narajczyk, Mirosława Panasiuk

“…(1) Background: Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) promptly evade preexisting immunity by constantly altering the immunodominant neutralizing antibody epitopes (antigenic drift) or by procuring new envelope serotypes (antigenic shift). …”
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HA gene amino acid mutations contribute to antigenic variation and immune escape of H9N2 influenza virus by Rui Zhu, Shunshun Xu, Wangyangji Sun, Quan Li, Shifeng Wang, Huoying Shi, Xiufan Liu

“…In this study, we were able to identify 15 HA mutations that were potentially relevant to viral antigenic drift, and we also found that a key amino acid mutation, A180V, at position 180 in HA (the numbering for mature H9 HA), the only site of the receptor binding sites that is not conserved, was directly responsible for viral antigenic variation. …”
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