The role of social contacts and original antigenic sin in shaping the age pattern of immunity to seasonal influenza. by Adam J Kucharski, Julia R Gog

“…We propose a candidate mechanism for this relationship, by which original antigenic sin, along with antigenic drift and vaccination, results in the age profile of immunity seen in empirical studies.…”
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Dynamics of glycoprotein charge in the evolutionary history of human influenza. by Nimalan Arinaminpathy, Bryan Grenfell

“…We identify key groups of amino acid sites involved in this charge trend.To our knowledge these are the first indications that, for human H3N2, net glycoprotein charge covaries strongly with antigenic drift on a global scale. Further work is needed to elucidate how such charge interacts with other immune escape mechanisms, such as glycosylation, and we discuss important questions arising for future study.…”
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The gut-lung axis in influenza A: the role of gut microbiota in immune balance by Guosen Ou, Huachong Xu, Jialin Wu, Shiqi Wang, Yaokang Chen, Li Deng, Xiaoyin Chen

“…Yet because the Influenza A virus (IAV) is highly susceptible to antigenic drift and Antigenic shift, and because of the lag in vaccine production, this poses a significant challenge to vaccine effectiveness. …”
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Influenza A Virus (H3N8) in Dogs with Respiratory Disease, Florida by Sunchai Payungporn, P. Cynda Crawford, Theodore S. Kouo, Li-mei Chen, Justine Pompey, William L. Castleman, Edward J. Dubovi, Jacqueline M. Katz, Ruben O. Donis

“…The antigenic homogeneity of the canine viruses suggests that measurable antigenic drift has not yet occurred. Continued surveillance and antigenic analyses should monitor possible emergence of antigenic variants of canine influenza virus.…”
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Hemagglutinin consensus-based prophylactic approaches to overcome influenza virus diversity by Giuseppe Andrea Sautto, Ted M. Ross

“…Influenza epidemics and pandemics are attributable to the ongoing evolution of influenza viruses through antigenic drift and shift, respectively. One of the reasons for the continuous circulation of influenza viruses in the human population is the incomplete protection conferred by currently available seasonal influenza vaccines against possible arising drifted or shifted influenza strains. …”
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Viral phylodynamics. by Erik M Volz, Katia Koelle, Trevor Bedford

“…Due to the impact that transmission dynamics and selection can have on viral genetic variation, viral phylogenies can therefore be used to investigate important epidemiological, immunological, and evolutionary processes, such as epidemic spread[2], spatio-temporal dynamics including metapopulation dynamics[3], zoonotic transmission, tissue tropism[4], and antigenic drift[5]. The quantitative investigation of these processes through the consideration of viral phylogenies is the central aim of viral phylodynamics.…”
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A Review on Equine Influenza from a Human Influenza Perspective by Fleur Whitlock, Pablo R. Murcia, J. Richard Newton

“…We highlight differences in evolutionary rates between EIV and human IAVs, their impact on antigenic drift, and vaccine strain updates. We also describe the approaches used for the control of equine influenza (EI), which originated from those used in the human field, including surveillance networks and virological analysis methods. …”
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Insights from the comparison of genomic variants from two influenza B viruses grown in the presence of human antibodies in cell culture. by Ewan P Plant, Hasmik Manukyan, Majid Laassri, Zhiping Ye

“…Some antibodies are cross-reactive and are able to bind strains from both lineages but, because of antigenic drift and immunodominance, both lineages continue to evolve and challenge human health. …”
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Insights from the comparison of genomic variants from two influenza B viruses grown in the presence of human antibodies in cell culture by Ewan P. Plant, Hasmik Manukyan, Majid Laassri, Zhiping Ye, Victor C. Huber

“…Some antibodies are cross-reactive and are able to bind strains from both lineages but, because of antigenic drift and immunodominance, both lineages continue to evolve and challenge human health. …”
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Evolutionary study and phylodynamic pattern of human influenza A/H3N2 virus in Indonesia from 2008 to 2010. by Agustiningsih Agustiningsih, Hidayat Trimarsanto, Restuadi Restuadi, I Made Artika, Margaret Hellard, David Handojo Muljono

“…Our evolutionary and phylogenetic analyses provide insight into the dynamic changes of Indonesian H3N2 virus from 2008 to 2010. Obvious antigenic drift with typical 'ladder-like' phylogeny was observed with multiple lineages found in each year, suggesting co-circulation of H3N2 strains at different time periods. …”
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Targeting Hemagglutinin: Approaches for Broad Protection against the Influenza A Virus by Yun Zhang, Cong Xu, Hao Zhang, George Dacai Liu, Chunyi Xue, Yongchang Cao

“…Influenza A viruses are dynamically epidemic and genetically diverse. Due to the antigenic drift and shift of the virus, seasonal vaccines are required to be reformulated annually to match with current circulating strains. …”
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Identification and Characterization of Novel Antibody Epitopes on the N2 Neuraminidase by Ericka Kirkpatrick Roubidoux, Meagan McMahon, Juan Manuel Carreño, Christina Capuano, Kaijun Jiang, Viviana Simon, Harm van Bakel, Patrick Wilson, Florian Krammer

“…Characterizing and defining these sites is aiding vaccine development and helping to understand antigenic drift of NA.…”
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Antibody Response to Influenza Hemagglutinin Conserved Stalk Domain after Sequential Immunization with Old Vaccine Strains by Alita Kongchanagul, Promsin Masrinoul, Chompunuch Boonarkart, Ornpreya Suptawiwat, Prasert Auewarakul

“…The variability of the HA head causes the antigenic drift that made the requirement of annual update of vaccine strains. …”
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Promising strategy for developing mRNA-based universal influenza virus vaccine for human population, poultry, and pigs– focus on the bigger picture by Nino Rcheulishvili, Dimitri Papukashvili, Cong Liu, Yang Ji, Yunjiao He, Peng George Wang

“…This many-sided characteristic of IAV along with the segmented genome gives rise to the antigenic drift and shift that allows evolving the new strains and new subtypes, respectively. …”
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The Human Antibody Response to the Influenza Virus Neuraminidase Following Infection or Vaccination by Madhusudan Rajendran, Florian Krammer, Meagan McMahon

“…Compared to the immuno-dominant hemagglutinin, there are fewer NA subtypes, and NA experiences a slower rate of antigenic drift and reduced immune selection pressure. …”
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Long-term evolution and transmission dynamics of swine influenza A virus. by Vijaykrishna, D, Smith, G, Pybus, O, Zhu, H, Bhatt, S, Poon, L, Riley, S, Bahl, J, Ma, S, Cheung, C, Perera, R, Chen, H, Shortridge, K, Webby, R, Webster, R, Guan, Y, Peiris, J

“…Our findings indicate that increased antigenic drift is associated with reassortment events and offer insights into the emergence of influenza viruses with epidemic potential in swine and humans.…”

Evolutionary pathways of the pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009 in the UK. by Monica Galiano, Paul-Michael Agapow, Catherine Thompson, Steven Platt, Anthony Underwood, Joanna Ellis, Richard Myers, Jonathan Green, Maria Zambon

“…A specific substitution (S203T) became predominant both in UK and global isolates. No antigenic drift occurred during 2009 as viruses with greater than four-fold reduction in their haemagglutination inhibition (HI) titre ("low reactors") were detected in a low proportion (3%) and occurred sporadically. …”
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Influenza and Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity by Tarra A. Von Holle, M. Anthony Moody, M. Anthony Moody, M. Anthony Moody

“…An error prone replication mechanism results in antigenic drift and viral escape from immune pressure, and recombination results in antigenic shift that can rapidly move through populations that lack immunity to newly emergent strains. …”
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Vaccine approaches conferring cross-protection against influenza viruses by Sai V Vemula, Ekramy E Sayedahmed, Suryaprakash Sambhara, Suresh K Mittal

“…Moreover, due to the high variability of viral surface proteins because of antigenic drift or antigenic shift, many of the currently licensed vaccines confer little or no protection against drift or shift variants. …”
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Correlating novel variable and conserved motifs in the Hemagglutinin protein with significant biological functions by Werner Mark, El-Hefnawi Mahmoud M, Gendoo Deena MA, Siam Rania

“…<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Variations in the influenza Hemagglutinin protein contributes to antigenic drift resulting in decreased efficiency of seasonal influenza vaccines and escape from host immune response. …”
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