Different arms of the adaptive immune system induced by a combination vaccine work in concert to provide enhanced clearance of influenza. by Joanna C A Cobbin, Weiguang Zeng, David C Jackson, Lorena E Brown

“…Current split influenza virus vaccines that induce strain-specific neutralising antibodies provide some degree of protection against influenza infection but there is a clear need to improve their effectiveness. The constant antigenic drift of influenza viruses means that vaccines are often not an exact match to the circulating strain and so levels of relevant antibodies may not be sufficiently high to afford protection. …”
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Antibody Response to Influenza Hemagglutinin Conserved Stalk Domain after Sequential Immunization with Old Vaccine Strains by Alita Kongchanagul, Promsin Masrinoul, Chompunuch Boonarkart, Ornpreya Suptawiwat, Prasert Auewarakul

“…The variability of the HA head causes the antigenic drift that made the requirement of annual update of vaccine strains. …”
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Promising strategy for developing mRNA-based universal influenza virus vaccine for human population, poultry, and pigs– focus on the bigger picture by Nino Rcheulishvili, Dimitri Papukashvili, Cong Liu, Yang Ji, Yunjiao He, Peng George Wang

“…This many-sided characteristic of IAV along with the segmented genome gives rise to the antigenic drift and shift that allows evolving the new strains and new subtypes, respectively. …”
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The Human Antibody Response to the Influenza Virus Neuraminidase Following Infection or Vaccination by Madhusudan Rajendran, Florian Krammer, Meagan McMahon

“…Compared to the immuno-dominant hemagglutinin, there are fewer NA subtypes, and NA experiences a slower rate of antigenic drift and reduced immune selection pressure. …”
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Vaccines: The Health of Nations by Datta, Shoumen

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Long-term evolution and transmission dynamics of swine influenza A virus. by Vijaykrishna, D, Smith, G, Pybus, O, Zhu, H, Bhatt, S, Poon, L, Riley, S, Bahl, J, Ma, S, Cheung, C, Perera, R, Chen, H, Shortridge, K, Webby, R, Webster, R, Guan, Y, Peiris, J

“…Our findings indicate that increased antigenic drift is associated with reassortment events and offer insights into the emergence of influenza viruses with epidemic potential in swine and humans.…”

Influenza and Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity by Tarra A. Von Holle, M. Anthony Moody, M. Anthony Moody, M. Anthony Moody

“…An error prone replication mechanism results in antigenic drift and viral escape from immune pressure, and recombination results in antigenic shift that can rapidly move through populations that lack immunity to newly emergent strains. …”
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Innovative Mucosal Vaccine Formulations Against Influenza A Virus Infections by Cynthia Calzas, Christophe Chevalier

“…These vaccines provide incomplete protection against IAV in high-risk groups and are poorly/not effective against the constant antigenic drift/shift occurring in circulating strains. …”
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Vaccine approaches conferring cross-protection against influenza viruses by Sai V Vemula, Ekramy E Sayedahmed, Suryaprakash Sambhara, Suresh K Mittal

“…Moreover, due to the high variability of viral surface proteins because of antigenic drift or antigenic shift, many of the currently licensed vaccines confer little or no protection against drift or shift variants. …”
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Correlating novel variable and conserved motifs in the Hemagglutinin protein with significant biological functions by Werner Mark, El-Hefnawi Mahmoud M, Gendoo Deena MA, Siam Rania

“…<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Variations in the influenza Hemagglutinin protein contributes to antigenic drift resulting in decreased efficiency of seasonal influenza vaccines and escape from host immune response. …”
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Serious acute respiratory syndrome: a case series in a municipality region of central Brazil by Cácia Régia  de Paula, Eliane Lemes  de Morais, Patrícia de Sá  Barros, Ludmila Grego  Maia, Bruno Bordin  Pelazza, Guilherme Silva Mendonca, Marcos Lazaro  Moreli

“…The influenza B virus is more stable than influenza A, with less antigenic drift and consequent immunologic stability, and does not undergo the process of antigenic shift, its participation in epidemics is minimal, being of lesser academic interest. …”
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Pathogenicity and virulence of influenza by Yuying Liang

“…Influenza viruses evolve rapidly through antigenic drift (mutation) and shift (reassortment of the segmented viral genome). …”
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Recent avian influenza virus A/H5N1 evolution in vaccinated and unvaccinated poultry from farms in Southern Vietnam, January-March 2010 by Long, N, Thanh, T, van Doorn, H, Vu, P, Dung, P, Dung, T, Tien, T, Thao, D, Hung, P, Quang, N, Hoa, N, Bryant, J, Boni, M

“…Despite the current lack of evidence for antigenic drift or immune escape in Vietnamese H5N1 viruses, continued surveillance remains a high priority. © 2011 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.…”

Recent avian influenza virus A/H5N1 evolution in vaccinated and unvaccinated poultry from farms in Southern Vietnam, January-March 2010. by Long, N, Thanh, T, Van Doorn, H, Vu, P, Dung, P, Dung, T, Tien, T, Thao, D, Hung, P, Quang, N, Hoa, N, Bryant, J, Boni, M

“…Despite the current lack of evidence for antigenic drift or immune escape in Vietnamese H5N1 viruses, continued surveillance remains a high priority.…”

Genome-wide evolutionary dynamics of influenza B viruses on a global scale. by Langat, P, Raghwani, J, Dudas, G, Bowden, T, Edwards, S, Gall, A, Bedford, T, Rambaut, A, Daniels, R, Russell, C, Pybus, O, McCauley, J, Kellam, P, Watson, S

“…Differences between the lineages are reflected in their antigenic dynamics, as Yamagata-lineage viruses show alternating dominance between antigenic groups, while Victoria-lineage viruses show antigenic drift of a single lineage. Structural mapping of amino acid substitutions on trunk branches of influenza B gene phylogenies further supports these antigenic differences and highlights two potential mechanisms of adaptation for polymerase activity. …”

Identification of a novel porcine Teschovirus 2 strain as causative agent of encephalomyelitis in suckling piglets with high mortality in China by Wenqi Liang, Xiangdong Wu, Zhen Ding, Shengwei Zhong, Xinjie Qian, Pei Ye, Hao Liu, Zheng Chen, Jinhua Zhang, Huabin Cao, Guoliang Hu, Junrong Luo, Zuohua Li, Nengshui Ding, Ruiming Hu

“…Overall, current case expanded our understanding of PTV-2 clinical spectrum and revealed the emergence of a highly virulent PTV-2 strain with substantial genetic diversity and antigenic drift potential in VP1 and VP2.…”
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β-glucans: wide-spectrum immune-balancing food-supplement-based enteric (β-WIFE) vaccine adjuvant approach to COVID-19 by Nobunao Ikewaki, Masaru Iwasaki, Gene Kurosawa, Kosagi-Sharaf Rao, Johant Lakey-Beitia, Senthilkumar Preethy, Samuel JK Abraham

“…The complexity of COVID-19 such as the potential mutations of the virus leading to antigenic drift and the uncertainty on the duration of the immunity induced by the vaccine have hampered the efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic. …”
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Genome-wide evolutionary dynamics of influenza B viruses on a global scale. by Pinky Langat, Jayna Raghwani, Gytis Dudas, Thomas A Bowden, Stephanie Edwards, Astrid Gall, Trevor Bedford, Andrew Rambaut, Rodney S Daniels, Colin A Russell, Oliver G Pybus, John McCauley, Paul Kellam, Simon J Watson

“…Differences between the lineages are reflected in their antigenic dynamics, as Yamagata-lineage viruses show alternating dominance between antigenic groups, while Victoria-lineage viruses show antigenic drift of a single lineage. Structural mapping of amino acid substitutions on trunk branches of influenza B gene phylogenies further supports these antigenic differences and highlights two potential mechanisms of adaptation for polymerase activity. …”
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A trivalent virus-like particle vaccine elicits protective immune responses against seasonal influenza strains in mice and ferrets. by Ted M Ross, Kutub Mahmood, Corey J Crevar, Kirsten Schneider-Ohrum, Penny M Heaton, Rick A Bright

“…There is need for improved human influenza vaccines, particularly for older adults who are at greatest risk for severe disease, as well as to address the continuous antigenic drift within circulating human subtypes of influenza virus. …”
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Preparing intensive care for the next pandemic influenza by Taylor Kain, Robert Fowler

“…A century since the 1918–1919 Spanish influenza pandemic—the largest and deadliest influenza pandemic in recorded history—we have learned much about pandemic influenza and the origins of antigenic drift among influenza A viruses. Despite this knowledge, we remain largely underprepared for when the next major pandemic occurs. …”
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