Impacts of Mask Wearing and Leakages on Cyclic Respiratory Flows and Facial Thermoregulation
Elevated face temperature due to mask wearing can cause discomfort and skin irritation, making mask mandates challenging. When thermal discomfort becomes intolerable, individuals instinctively or unknowingly loosen or remove their facemasks, compromising the mask’s protective efficacy. The objective...
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| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
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MDPI AG
2023-12-01
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| Series: | Fluids |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5521/9/1/9 |
| _version_ | 1797344044368527360 |
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| author | Kian Barari Xiuhua Si Jinxiang Xi |
| author_facet | Kian Barari Xiuhua Si Jinxiang Xi |
| author_sort | Kian Barari |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Elevated face temperature due to mask wearing can cause discomfort and skin irritation, making mask mandates challenging. When thermal discomfort becomes intolerable, individuals instinctively or unknowingly loosen or remove their facemasks, compromising the mask’s protective efficacy. The objective of this study was to numerically quantify the microclimate under the mask and facial thermoregulation when wearing a surgical mask with different levels of misfit. An integrated ambient–mask–face–airway computational model was developed with gaps of varying sizes and locations and was validated against complementary experiments. The low Reynolds number (LRN) k-ω turbulence model with porous media was used to simulate transient respiratory flows. Both skin convective heat transfer and tissue heat generation were considered in thermoregulation under the facemask, besides the warm air exhaled from the body and the cool air inhaled from the ambient. The results of this study showed that when wearing a surgical mask with a perfect fit under normal breathing, the temperature at the philtrum increased by 4.3 °C compared to not wearing a mask. A small gap measuring 0.51 cm<sup>2</sup> (gap A) at the nose top resulted in 5.6% leakage but reduced the warming effect by 28% compared to zero gap. Meanwhile, a gap of 4.3 cm<sup>2</sup> (R1L1) caused 42% leakage and a 62% reduction in the warming effect. Unique temporospatial temperature profiles were observed at various sampling points and for different gap sizes, which correlated reasonably with the corresponding flow dynamics, particularly close to the gaps. The temperature change rate also exhibited patterns unique to the gap site and sampling point, with distinctive peaks occurring during the inspiratory–expiratory flow transitions. These results have the significant implications that by using the temporospatial temperature profiles at several landmark points, the gap location can potentially be pinpointed, and the gap size and leakage fractions can be quantified. |
| first_indexed | 2024-03-08T10:56:35Z |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj.art-bf9e79fe2c6748f2a777e36ae56d40be |
| institution | Directory Open Access Journal |
| issn | 2311-5521 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2024-03-08T10:56:35Z |
| publishDate | 2023-12-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Fluids |
| spelling | doaj.art-bf9e79fe2c6748f2a777e36ae56d40be2024-01-26T16:24:36ZengMDPI AGFluids2311-55212023-12-0191910.3390/fluids9010009Impacts of Mask Wearing and Leakages on Cyclic Respiratory Flows and Facial ThermoregulationKian Barari0Xiuhua Si1Jinxiang Xi2Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, MA 01854, USADepartment of Aerospace, Industrial, and Mechanical Engineering, California Baptist University, Riverside, CA 92504, USADepartment of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, MA 01854, USAElevated face temperature due to mask wearing can cause discomfort and skin irritation, making mask mandates challenging. When thermal discomfort becomes intolerable, individuals instinctively or unknowingly loosen or remove their facemasks, compromising the mask’s protective efficacy. The objective of this study was to numerically quantify the microclimate under the mask and facial thermoregulation when wearing a surgical mask with different levels of misfit. An integrated ambient–mask–face–airway computational model was developed with gaps of varying sizes and locations and was validated against complementary experiments. The low Reynolds number (LRN) k-ω turbulence model with porous media was used to simulate transient respiratory flows. Both skin convective heat transfer and tissue heat generation were considered in thermoregulation under the facemask, besides the warm air exhaled from the body and the cool air inhaled from the ambient. The results of this study showed that when wearing a surgical mask with a perfect fit under normal breathing, the temperature at the philtrum increased by 4.3 °C compared to not wearing a mask. A small gap measuring 0.51 cm<sup>2</sup> (gap A) at the nose top resulted in 5.6% leakage but reduced the warming effect by 28% compared to zero gap. Meanwhile, a gap of 4.3 cm<sup>2</sup> (R1L1) caused 42% leakage and a 62% reduction in the warming effect. Unique temporospatial temperature profiles were observed at various sampling points and for different gap sizes, which correlated reasonably with the corresponding flow dynamics, particularly close to the gaps. The temperature change rate also exhibited patterns unique to the gap site and sampling point, with distinctive peaks occurring during the inspiratory–expiratory flow transitions. These results have the significant implications that by using the temporospatial temperature profiles at several landmark points, the gap location can potentially be pinpointed, and the gap size and leakage fractions can be quantified.https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5521/9/1/9mask wearingthermoregulationmask fitthermal discomfortphiltrummask mandate |
| spellingShingle | Kian Barari Xiuhua Si Jinxiang Xi Impacts of Mask Wearing and Leakages on Cyclic Respiratory Flows and Facial Thermoregulation Fluids mask wearing thermoregulation mask fit thermal discomfort philtrum mask mandate |
| title | Impacts of Mask Wearing and Leakages on Cyclic Respiratory Flows and Facial Thermoregulation |
| title_full | Impacts of Mask Wearing and Leakages on Cyclic Respiratory Flows and Facial Thermoregulation |
| title_fullStr | Impacts of Mask Wearing and Leakages on Cyclic Respiratory Flows and Facial Thermoregulation |
| title_full_unstemmed | Impacts of Mask Wearing and Leakages on Cyclic Respiratory Flows and Facial Thermoregulation |
| title_short | Impacts of Mask Wearing and Leakages on Cyclic Respiratory Flows and Facial Thermoregulation |
| title_sort | impacts of mask wearing and leakages on cyclic respiratory flows and facial thermoregulation |
| topic | mask wearing thermoregulation mask fit thermal discomfort philtrum mask mandate |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5521/9/1/9 |
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